Abstract: This paper is intended to serve as a guideline for teachers in the use of CALL in the English Language classroom and was written in Dublin, when the author was teaching TOEFL exam classes to a group of predominantly Asian students and decided that the material needed to be more motivational and more closely related to students' own interests. The fol lowing outlines how I designed two pieces of courseware, used them in the classroom and evaluated their overall effectiveness.

INTRODUCTION.

Garrett (2000), in a quote taken from the Joint Policy Statements of CALICO, EUROCALL and IALLT (1999), defines Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) as "a relatively new and rapidly evolving academic field that explores the role of information and communication technologies in language learning and teaching."

This straightforward definition serves as an introduction for her assertion that CALL has evolved into something that is "both inherently multidisciplinary and academically substantive" and has become intrinsically linked with the area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and has influenced research in various other fields including cognitive science and psychology.

These views on the evolution of CALL and its close relationship to SLA have also been explored in the works of Warschauer (1996), Gonzalez (2003) and most notably Chapelle (1998).

Therefore, the main priority of this paper is to demonstrate that it is possible to achieve what Gonzalez described as "developing effective language teaching materials based on second language acquisition principles" (2003:86), by adopting the integrative CALL approach described by Warschauer (1996) and Moras (2003), with the ultimate aim of using these materials as a platform for research into the pedagogical benefits of CALL in the SLA environment.

In order to reach that stage of research and evaluation, I had to go through a process of studying relevant CALL literature and using the acquired knowledge to create materials that were innovative, capable of realizing "the full potential of recent technological developments" (Murray:1999) and focused on the ultimate goal of analyzing the value of electronic materials in the field of Second Language Acquisition.

TWO SAMPLES OF ELECTRONIC COURSEWARE.

Before considering how to design samples of courseware for use in the classroom, I considered the assertion of Chapelle that "SLA theory and research might also be consulted to suggest CALL design and to guide research on effectiveness" (1998:22), with particular emphasis on her associated theories about the interdependence of the design process, based on relevant hypotheses about SLA, and the final evaluation of CALL learning activities, based on focused observation.

The first piece of self-designed electronic material that I designed as part of this investigation into the use of CALL was a PowerPoint presentation, intended for use in both a self access situation and a General English course, focusing specifically on the present perfect tense, with the aim of making the associated lesson as interactive and communicative as possible and thus providing "an evaluative perspective for developing tasks and evaluating performance" as referred to in Petrie (2004:9).

The next sample of material, chosen secondly as a result of initial unfamiliarity with the package and the demands of scripting objects, was developed in Asymetrix Toolbook and intended for use as a supplementary aid to TOEFL exam preparations, in order to allow learners to gain a better view of a small part of the curriculum, as supported by the theories of writers such as Phillips (1987).

Neither piece of material was intended as an example of professionalism in software design, but rather as a means of experimentation through which I could develop my skills as a teaching professional with greater consciousness and empirically backed awareness of how properly researched and considered use of CALL can substantially benefit the process of SLA. This is a point that many teachers should take on board as a confidence building measure in their attempts to integrate CALL into their lessons. Not even the most demanding students are expecting the perfection found in professional software design.

CONCEPTUALIZATION AND PRE-DESIGN STAGE.
(See also Appendix One)

The first objective of this small-scale project was to successfully integrate my growing awareness of CALL into the existing framework of my language teaching methodology so that I would have a solid foundation for subsequently evaluating the success or failure of my efforts at each stage in the process of development from the conceptualization of the project to the post-design integration of the software into classroom activities. Setting the foundations for sound pedagogical practice has been consistently referred to in SLA and CALL literature over the past three decades, for example in Hubbard (1996) and even as far back as Breen et al (1979) and Keith and Lafford (1989).

Essentially, the needs of the learners was the driving force in shaping the character of the task and creation of the electronic materials. This motivation is supported by the writings of Chapelle (1998) and Levy (1997:68-69) who explains how, over the course of a decade, there was a shift in focus "towards recognizing the real needs and perceptual abilities of computer users, and designing applications with those characteristics foremost in mind." These views are further echoed in an article by Moras (2001) who explains the difference in communicative CALL which uses the computer as stimulus for other activities and integrative CALL which places a greater emphasis on multimedia. Gonzalez (2003:86), in quoting from the earlier literature of Shanks & Cleary (1994) also refers to the shift in pedagogical methods from a traditional "teacher-centered" approach to a new method that is more versatile and "student-centered". Integrative CALL makes more demands on the student and, in my opinion, creates a more relaxed, diversified and motivational environment, in which to stimulate the twin processes of interaction and second language acquisition.

THE STUDENTS.

The students whose learning needs shaped the design of the two pieces of electronic courseware were adults, from a diverse range of nationalities and language backgrounds, particularly Brazilian, Chinese, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Slovakian, Spanish, Turkish and Yugoslavian. They were studying a combination of General English and exam classes, with a higher percentage of Asian students pursuing the latter option for reasons of needing a recognized qualification or evidence of second language capability sufficient for university entrance, hence the school's provision of TOEFL preparation courses.

MATERIAL SHAPED AROUND LEARNER NEEDS.

Keeping in mind the assertions of Chapelle (1998) it was important to design activities around the needs of learners and particularly with TOEFL courses, due to the proficiency level required to take the exam, it was vital to combine stand alone materials with topics that would motivate students. Initially I considered incorporating the theme of travel into "drill and revision exercises" suitable for computer-based instruction as referred to in the earlier literature of Ahmad et al (1985:5). Therefore I opted to use Asymetrix Toolbook which is based on a simple 'book' metaphor and allows both author and reader to work through a series of interlinked pages. This package is already widely used in the design of educational software but, in my case, it was entirely new and offered a fresher challenge than the creation of web based materials. Aside from this, the challenge of learning the programming language afforded me opportunities to explore new avenues of creative possibility and provided me with the added psychological benefit of being placed in a position very similar to that of the L2 students that I was teaching in Dublin.

In my opinion and that of students, when questioned about it in my primary research, TOEFL materials tend to be quite dull and the exercises are laborious, in the same way as getting familiarized with Toolbook, for example, might be deemed to be laborious for the first-time user who has not gained sufficient experience or summoned the courage to experiment with the diverse possibilities of the package and unleashed the potential to incorporate sophistication and interactivity into their design. Thus, I chose to expand on the travel theme and develop material that was rich in images, in the form and content of the written word, and photographic imagery on screen, with plenty of scope for communicative interaction, striving to create a layout that had characteristics more commonly associated with (in my opinion) the visually aesthetic nature of First Certificate Speaking Test materials than in the often generic and formulaic TOEFL textbooks.

In the case of the material for the General English course, I wanted to develop something that could be used equally well in either the classroom or in a self-access situation.

However, I am in complete agreement with Levy (1997:231) when he makes the point that; "even if CALL materials are designed to be stand alone, students are more likely to use them when encouraged by their teacher", a conviction further supported by empirical knowledge of striving to develop Computer and Video materials for Self-Access use.

Therefore, the lesson that I conceptualized for the General English course was best translated into the medium of PowerPoint because this is a powerful package that offers a solid professional appearance and is capable of utilizing a diverse range of media to enhance communicative interaction.

GIVING SHAPE TO MY THEORETICAL PARADIGMS.

In starting out on the design process with clear aims, namely to focus primarily on the needs of learners, to make the materials as interactive as possible and to assimilate a solid rationale into everything that I did, it was important to remain true to the guiding principle of design with evaluation in mind, as referred to in Chapelle (1998) and Gonzalez (2003).

Earlier critics such as Phillips (1983), Last (1990) and Legenhausen and Wolff (1987) have doubted the wisdom and the credentials of teachers acting as computer programmers, particularly the latter who suggest that this can "inhibit the development of professional software" (170). However, I believe that by using an effective authoring system, a highly beneficial type of software can be developed by language teachers who have a clear focus in mind and have considered the needs of learners and, in the words of Chapelle, developed a framework for "empirical research intended to discover how successful the materials are for learners" (1998:22). This was why, in the design of an effective Toolbook and a PowerPoint presentation that would facilitate communication and interaction, my first considerations were the needs of the target audience. Most writers on the subject of interactive design; such as Howlett (1996:33), Evans (1997:240), Kristof and Satran (1996:16) and Adamson (2001) support the drive towards getting to know the target user at an early stage in the planning, so as to predict the audience and possible learning outcomes. (See Appendix 2.)

This is backed up by other writers such as Nunan (1988:42) and Graves (1996:12) who both highlight the importance of identifying the target learner's needs in order to design an appropriate course, although Adamson (2001) is a strong critic of the former and recommends instead that teachers do not focus dogmatically on the established ideas about needs analysis and instead gather information "from a wide variety of sources" and then use it "to determine specific goals for the class."

Therefore, in designing the material, I opted not just to take ideas from a student needs' analysis form, but also from contemporary (non-textbook) TOEFL materials, found on the Internet and sample CD ROMS, and other teaching professionals with experience of providing TOEFL or exam-based courses, with prolonged discussion about my view that SLA and motivation is mainly affected by what the student sees on the screen or in the textbook in front of them.

Having completed my research and considered the needs of the students, the next step was the type of information design described by Kristof and Satran (1997:7) as "clarifying your communication goals and arranging your ideas into a design that serves those goals." In the same work, they go on to suggest that the design of interactive materials involves considering informational content, interaction design and presentation design and point out how important navigation is through a piece of material that comprises various sections, such as in the example of the TOEFL Toolbook. Continuing on from this, they talk about the importance of "creating interfaces that help people understand where they are, where they can go and how to get there." (1995:42) This quote is highly relevant in the context of the travel theme at the heart of my Toolbook and this emphasis on clear layout and design is reiterated by Oliver and Herrington (1995) who talk about the use of unnecessary elements in screen design, putting particular emphasis on the overuse of multiple colours and fonts.

In terms of SLA, it is generally accepted that students learn faster when they are motivated, as consistently referred to in the literature, and, in the words of Doughty and Long (2003) quoted in Petrie (2004), when the designer of material has taken into consideration sound principles of task-based learning, "which are based on cognitive and interactionist SLA theory."

Therefore, in choosing the content of the Toolbook and the PowerPoint, I opted for as wide a range of tasks as possible, with particular emphasis on form and meaning and strong visual stimulus. However, most of this visual stimulus was provided by the use of digital images, taken with my own digital camera so as to avoid any copyright issues and to ensure that the pictures actually fitted the needs of the courseware and were not added for purely aesthetic purposes.

I should add that it was a combination of constraints in time and resources rather than a lack of subject knowledge that influenced my decision not to utilize complex sound or video elements in either package even though it would have enhanced the interactivity of the project.

PROGRESS OF THE ACTUAL DESIGN PROCESS.

To start with, the design process was slow. PowerPoint was relatively easy to manage but in the beginning I used Toolbook "in a controlled and limited environment" as discussed by Motteram and Slaouti (2003:6) However, as I researched further information on the use of Toolbook, mainly via the Internet, I gained an enhanced understanding of how it worked, my confidence grew and creativity was added to my work, as predicted in (2003:6).

Essentially, my primary concentration was on learning about the language and the means of scripting objects, rather than producing something overly dynamic purely for the sake of it. I wanted to gain the maximum benefit from a limited set of tools at my disposal and produce something meaningful and geared towards the needs of my students rather than something that was impressive purely for the sake of impression.

THE TESTING AND ANALYSIS STAGE.

Having finished the design process, with a far greater proportion of time spent on Toolbook, the real test of the material came at the stage of using it in the classroom for the first time, as part of the regular curriculum, an idea supported in the literature of Vaughan (1994:441) who suggests that "aggressive critics" are the best judges of the quality of the material and strongly recommends having the material tested by target users. On a similar note, Chapelle (1998) refers to Breen (1997) who talks of the impact that learners themselves make in shaping the character of the task and, as such, the finished product has to be referred back to those same learners in order to analyze the strengths and weaknesses in the design process. I choose not to use the term successes and failures because, in my opinion, supported by the experience of other teaching professionals, there is something positive to be gained in the evaluation process which follows every attempt to create and use a piece of learning material.

Therefore, the designer's self-evaluation and the experience gained from observing learners as they complete the task is just as important as the ability of the material to actively engage students in the learning process. Chapelle (1998) details a list of research questions for "Empirical Evaluation of Multimedia CALL" and these include "learner's introspective accounts" of what they thought they had learned, a post-test constructed ahead of time, and by considering the learner's requests for modification. Taking one example of the latter suggestion, I decided to modify the means of providing answers to the PowerPoint For and Since exercise after students pointed out the weaknesses in my original design which relied too heavily on students switching back and forwards between pages.

In line with the theories of Chapelle, I finally decided that the best means of "outcome assessment" was to carefully observe the students as they were completing the tasks and then have a feedback session at the end of each lesson, although, by its very nature, it is easier to ask students what they have learned about the present perfect than to measure the correction of common errors made in the TOEFL exam. Yet, the criticism was interesting and, in line with Vaughan (1994), highly aggressive in terms of expectations. Amongst the most common criticisms were the fact that I had not included a tallying mechanism for the Toolbook grammar exercises, which is something that TOEFL students consider to be vital for purposes of self-assessment of their own abilities and the belief that in a General English class there can be such a difference of level that some people 'click' onto the form and meaning of the grammar almost immediately whilst others struggle and therefore slow the class down. In order for this type of lesson to work effectively, the teacher needs to control the pace of the lesson very carefully and have good class management skills.

In the main reaction was favourable although, on a professional design level there were structural errors, particularly in what Slaouti (2001:43-44) refers to as "housekeeping. In line with theories espoused in the work of authors such as Kristof and Satran (1995), Levy (1997) and Laurillard (1993), I identified the main problems in my design and tried to adapt the material to become more user friendly, thus ending up with a package that looks more professional and is more motivational for the students, but which still needed some minor work on housekeeping.

CONCLUSION.

To conclude I shall state that from my research, I can now make the empirically-supported assertion that CALL is indeed beneficial in the area of SLA and that proper application of Chapelle's (1998) theories about the interdependency of design and evaluation can contribute substantially to the ultimate success of CALL materials in the classroom and indeed, in the broader sense, any second-language teaching material.

Murray (1999) speaks about the need for experimentation with innovative learning structures and writers such as Levy (1997) and Chapelle (1997, 1998) have argued for a theory driven approach to the creation of electronic learning materials and these assertions have been backed up by my own experience of developing teaching materials in electronic form. Furthermore, in studying the literature, I have developed a greater awareness of the interdisciplinary nature of CALL, and have developed a stronger interest in the study and psychology of SLA.

On a practical level, having already completed a module that looked in depth at the use of the Internet as a marketing tool in the EFL industry, I have now worked at length with each of the three main sources of designing electronic learning materials and, although small errors were made along the way, especially in Toolbook, I feel that I am a more competent and informed professional as a result of the amalgamation of theory and practice in this project.

References

Adamson, C. (2001) CALL - Computer Assisted Language Learning, Educational Technology & Society 4 (3) 2001.

Ahmad, K., Corbett, G., Rodgers, M., and Sussex R. (1985). Computers, Language Learning and Language Teaching Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Amiri, F. (1995). Teacher Training and the search for the 'best' programming environment.CALL Review, July 1995.

Bailin, A. (1988). Artificial Intelligence and Computer Assisted Language Instruction: A Perspective, CALICO Journal 5/3,pp. 25-50

Bailin, A., and Levin, L. (1989). Introduction, Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Instruction, Computers and the Humanities 22/2: pp. 99-110

Bates, A. (1995). Technology, Open Learning and Distance Education. London: Routledge.

Breen, M.P., and Water,s A. (1979). Communicative Materials Design: Some Basic Principles, RELC Journal, 10/2; 1-13.

Chapelle, C.A. (1997). CALL in the year 2000: Still in search of research paradigms? Language Learning and Technology 1 (1) pp. 19-43

Chapelle, C.A. (1998). Multimedia CALL: Lessons to be learned from research on instructed SLA. Language Learning & Technology, 2 (1), pp.22-34.

Garrett, N. (2000). Post to the LLTI. Language Learning and Technology Information. Retrieved from www.richmond.edu

APPENDIX ONE.
Evaluating Strengths and Weaknesses in Pre-Design Stage.

 

 

APPENDIX TWO.