Abstract
The paper
argues that EFL teaching and learning in Taiwan can be enriched by integrating
contemporary perspectives in psychology that deal with the areas of psychology
of learning and language development to help Taiwanese college students
in their study of the English language. Specifically, the first part of
the paper is a discussion regarding the implications of both the Information-Processing
Theory and Social-Behavioral Perspective alongside the author's experience
in handling Taiwanese students at the tertiary level. The second part
of the paper focuses on the author's recommendations with the hope of
improving the plight of EFL teaching in Taiwan and in developing the general
English proficiency of college students. As a whole, the paper argues
for the consolidation of EFL language policies, the language curriculum,
and teaching strategies within an espoused and viable theoretical paradigm
other than focusing on the traditional approaches utilized in the country.
This is meant to boost efforts to internationalize the human resources
in Taiwan towards national and global competitiveness.
Keywords: EFL, Psychology of Learning, Cognitive Psycholinguistics,
Taiwanese EFL Students, EFL Teaching
Introduction
Taiwanese
society has put much pressure on itself to develop the EFL proficiency
within the country in the hope of gaining more access in the global arena
of international trade and commerce (Carey, 1998; Thompson, 2003; see
also, Mok & Lee, 2001 for a discussion on the higher education reforms
in Taiwan as brought about by globalization). To cope with the demands
that accompany internationalization, awareness has been growing regarding
the importance of English language study for both social and economic
mobility. For some, it is a career-related necessity in order to gain
prestige and move up the corporate ladder. For others, it is like mining
for gold especially in consideration of what Krashen (2003) calls as the
English fever that looms over the country. Hence, it is observable that
learning English in Taiwan, as a foreign language, has become a fashionable
trend and business other than studying it for scholarly purposes (Liu,
2002; Taipei Times, 2003). Alongside the developments in EFL teaching
and learning that have been transpiring all over the country, pervasive
issues can also be said to continuously persist. Sadly, these issues haunt
Taiwan's efforts in internationalizing the potentials of its human resources
(see Huang, 2003b; Huang, 2003c; Thompson, 2003; Taipei Times, 2002; Yiu,
2003; Yun-Ping, 2003). These issues pose a concern, not only for the parents
and students themselves, but the whole educational system as well (Carey,
1998).
Specifically, the tertiary educational system in Taiwan partly carries
the burden in internationalizing the potentials of its human resources
(Tiangco, 2004). It plays a crucial role in the sense that it is responsible
for preparing undergraduate students for future careers and in providing
them with the necessary skills to become productive members of both industry
and government. It is also responsible for providing continuing education
programs such as courses in English for students with a college degree
but would like to study the language further without embarking on a formal
graduate or post-graduate EFL/ESL degree program. More importantly, the
influence of globalization presents a challenge to higher education for
it to provide relevant language training and education to promising Taiwanese
in preparing them for global-competitiveness. Subsidies are being provided
to those interested in pursuing post- graduate degrees in foreign countries.
Obviously, all of these reflect the great importance the Taiwanese place
on learning English as a foreign language (Baker, 2003).
Although the responsibility should really fall on the Ministry of Education
and its general language program as a whole, but pressure is mostly felt
at the tertiary level. Such pressure is evident in the increase in the
number of Applied Foreign Languages Department in different tertiary educational
institutions (Su, 2004). An increase demand for foreign teachers is also
evident (Shu-ling, 2003). Moreover, preparing and taking standardized
language tests such as the General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) and
the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) have definitely
become a routine for most college students. To every extent it has now
even become a burden wherein teachers teach in order for students to pass
the said tests (Chang, 2003)
Amidst efforts to create a national bilingual environment in the next
few years to come (see, Oladejo, 2003), most Taiwanese students continuously
grapple with the intricacies involved with vocabulary acquisition, the
grammatical features of English, and the desire and preoccupation to develop
an accent similar to native English speakers. Taiwanese technology, college,
and university students are cut-off from the intellectual vibrancy involved
in the critical study of the English language. Higher-order language skills
are underdeveloped given the predicament that basic skills are not well-formed
and largely remain unstable. And yet, high educational demands such as
emphasis on tests and the crammed memorization of words are a reality
for most students (Thompson, 2003). Little room is provided for intellectual
flexibility that allows Taiwanese students to exercise creativity to test
their capacity for intellectual reasoning using the English language.
Consequently, the prevalent perception remains regarding the disappointing
general English proficiency of some Taiwanese college students in spite
of the high cost of learning, expensive books, and enrollment at expensive
cram schools (Yiu, 2003).
Some of these students will later on become the next generation of teachers
who are going to handle English courses in different levels, which Oladejo
(2003) regards as not competent enough to teach English using the language
itself as a medium of instruction. In connection to this, is it still
worth pointing a finger as to who is to blame amidst the problems and
issues identified?
The paper argues that perhaps a new outlook should be undertaken in Taiwan
given the backdrop of the issues presented. Specifically, this outlook
aims at a more theoretically grounded approach to EFL teaching vis-à-vis
sensitivity to contemporary developments in psychology. The first part
of the paper outlines the theoretical implications of the Information-Processing
Theory and the Behavioral and Social Learning Perspectives. Within this
context, the specific implications of these theoretical standpoints shall
be discussed as it can be applied inside the EFL classroom. The second
part of the paper focuses on anecdotal observations and recommendations
in improving the plight of Taiwanese EFL development at the tertiary level
within the framework of the theoretical standpoints presented.
Contemporary
Psychological Perspectives and EFL Learning:
Implications to Taiwanese Learners
Background
knowledge of psychology plays an important role in facilitating the processes
involved in both language teaching and language learning (Bernardo, 1998;
Chomsky, 2000; Clarke & Silberstein, 1987; Krashen, 1987; Krashen,
2003; Taylor, 1990; Williams & Burden, 1997). More importantly, knowledge
of both the theoretical and practical applications of cognitive psychology
to EFL/ESL learning and teaching can definitely yield fruitful results
(Barrow, 1990). Hence, it can be argued that psychology has a clear role
in facilitating language development and teaching even within the context
of EFL learning in Taiwan.
Taiwanese teachers handling tertiary EFL courses, therefore, should be
made aware that the study of any language is not bound by a structural
linguistic approach that is limited to syntax, phonology, and the memorization
of vocabulary words. From a psycholinguistic perspective, it is equally
important to understand how the mind acquires and processes linguistic
information for use in communication (Deuchar & Quay, 2000). In relation
to this, the study of English should not be detached from understanding
how the mind is able to think and process information in the first place
(Chomsky, 2000; Deuchar & Quay, 2000; Muter & Johns, 1985; Stemmer,
1999).
The Cognitive
Psychology of EFL Learning:
Understanding the Information-Processing Theory
One of the
most important models in cognitive psychology is the information-processing
theory, which has grown popular through the years providing a comprehensible
outlook towards mental life, cognitive processes, and human behavior (Bernardo,
1998). As far as the behavioral standpoint is concerned, although it still
relatively enjoys popularity in usage, it has also come under attack from
the seemingly justified criticisms of the cognitive movement in psychology
(see, Leahey, 1980 for a detailed discussion on the criticisms regarding
the behavioral perspective in psychology). The highlight of the model
focuses on the comparisons drawn between the theoretical conception of
the human mind in relation to computers, calculation devices, radio transmission
devices, and to communication theory.
The information-processing theory touches on the different aspects of
human life, specifically such as the study of memory, learning, transfer
of learning, thought-formation, creativity, problem solving and most importantly,
language development (see, Medin, Ross & Markman, 2001; Neisser, 1967
for a more thorough discussion on the information-processing theory; see
also, Bernardo, 1998 for a discussion on its specific implications to
language learning). In regards to EFL learning and teaching, it also provides
a viable theoretical framework that clearly and unsophisticatedly describes
the process of language learning and its impact to the educational process
(Cangelosi & Parisi, 2002; Kern & Warschauer, 2000).
To begin with, the English language, composed of its syntax, phonology
and the vocabulary words comprising the language are forms of linguistic
information. Linguistic information is processed by the mind just like
any other information vital to the survival of an organism (de Saussure,
1959). Therefore, linguistic information used in everyday communication
can be understood as information broken down into linguistic signs - both
visual and auditory - which are processed by the mind for whatever intended
use (Chandler, 1994). The model accounts for the input, processing and
output phases involved in generalized forms of learning (see Neisser,
1967). It is best to even begin by saying that language is not simply
acquired but instead developmentally learned as an enduring process (Barrow,
1990; Chomsky, 2000; Krashen, 1987). Simply put, the capacity for human
language is a learned behavior mediated by cognitive processes. The information-processing
theory can be broken down into the following to describe further its salient
characteristics: Sensory/Information Input, Processing, and Output.
Sensory/information input. Any form of physical energy or stimulus
that stimulates the sensory organs of the human body can be regarded as
sensory information (Plotnik & Mollenauer, 1978; Stemmer, 1999). This
physical energy or sensory information is then transformed into electrical
impulses and transmitted to the brain via the afferent nervous system.
The input phase of the model describes the inward flow of information
ready to be processed by the brain. For example, as one read the words
on this paragraph, the different lines and markings that compose the alphabet
of each word can be called the stimulus or physical energy that stimulates
the visual sensory receptors. The eyes receive these markings as a form
of linguistic information. Through the auditory sensory receptors, auditory
stimulus can also be received as a form of physical energy. The linguistic
information that stimulates the visual and/or auditory sensory receptor(s)
is then broken down into electrical impulses transmitted by the afferent
nervous system from the senses to the brain (Plotnik & Mollenauer,
1978).
Processing. As soon as the information, which is in the form of
electrical impulses, reaches the brain, several functions act upon it
interdependently (Chomsky, 2000). The processing aspect of the model relegates
to a myriad of brain activities meant to act upon the received information
in the same manner as how a computer processes information (Neisser, 1967).
Examples of processing involves stimulus recognition, encoding in either
the short term or long term memory system or in both, perception, memory
recall, and other higher mental faculties such as thinking, thought formation,
creativity, and problem-solving (Medin, Ross & Markman, 2001; Taylor,
1990). Given the nature of the stimulus received during the input phase
and the needed mental function to process the information, reaction time
varies depending on what is needed for a particular situation.
Persons of different age, sex, cultural, and ethnic background vary in
the level of cognitive development as manifested in how they may give
meaning to sensory information (Chomsky, 2000). Continuing with the earlier
example, the words on this paragraph are linguistic information that can
be broken down into smaller elements that are processed by the brain.
Stimulus recognition takes place in recognizing the elements that comprise
a particular alphabet. When put together these elements are then recognized
by the brain as a group of alphabets comprising a word. The processing
of information goes beyond mere stimulus recognition. The recognized words
are given meaning depending on existing information in the short term
or long term memory system. Consequently, higher mental processes are
also utilized such as thinking, analyzing, etc. as part of the process
of semantically organizing the stimulus being recognized. Depending on
several factors, meaning is then produced in making sense of the paragraph.
Output. The resulting cognitive, affective, and behavioral disposition
of a person can be regarded as the output (Neisser, 1967). As the brain
processes the information, the end result of the processing phase is carried
from the brain to the different parts of the body through the efferent
nervous system (Plotnik & Mollenauer, 1978). Examples of such an output
range from the production of internal mental/symbolic images to signify
understanding or the lack of it, the actual mental manipulation of the
said mental/symbolic images towards a desired result, affective dispositions
such as anxiety, happiness, or fear as associated with the processed sensory
information, and observable behavioral changes and movements displayed
by the person (Medin, Ross & Markman, 2001). A mere frown signifies
the output phase as a reaction to an inability to fully comprehend the
meaning being conveyed in the earlier paragraphs.
Using a computer as a model in further discussing the information-processing
theory descriptive of the human mind, linguistic information or any other
information is always processed as it is stored in the memory systems.
First of all, the long-term memory system resembles the hard disk of the
computer and the short-term memory is like the Random Access Memory system
(RAM). The goal is to properly store the information and make sure that
it is not easily forgotten or lost in the storage place (Medin, Ross &
Markman, 2001). Thus, forming a semantic network facilitates in storing
linguistic information that is not isolated from other linguistic information
(Kern & Warschauer, 2000). The creation of knowledge networks involves
the establishment of linkages among individual linguistic information
in a way like the structure-mapping of knowledge (see Gentner, 1983).
As more linkages are created the semantic network develops towards the
full production of meaningful knowledge structures within the mind (Feldman
& Ballard, 1982; Gentner, 1983; Siskind, 2000). In other words, a
schematic network is created and developed that facilitates in the communication
process and in enabling a person to derive meaning from everyday experiences
that enhances learning (Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Kurcz, 1984).
Retrieval of linguistic information from the various memory systems affects
the retention of information and even the production of meaning (Neisser,
1967). In the process of retrieving the information, it entails that the
linguistic information is used for the production of meaning and understanding
as manifested through any process of communication (Medin, Ross &
Markman, 2001). Thus, learning is reinforced through frequent retrieval
of the linguistic information from the long-term memory system even towards
mastery. Opportunities, therefore, should be created to enable learners'
frequent use of the linguistic information that they have stored in their
memory systems. Through the output phase, the linguistic information is
retrieved to enable the learner to interact with one's environment and
enable communication.
Applying the Information-Processing Theory Inside the EFL Classroom:
Re-thinking the Taiwan Experience
Using the
information-processing theory, the very first concern is in developing
the ability of the Taiwanese learner to achieve success in the sensory
recognition and pattern encoding of linguistic information. These tasks
focus on the different phases of the model. In relation to this, cross-cultural
comparisons can also be drawn between the model and the Confucian culture
of learning evident in Taiwan (see also, Robertson, 2002 for a discussion
on the influence of Confucianism on education as evident in Korea). The
Confucian saying, "I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do
and I understand," definitely has a place in discussing certain points
in the information-processing theory and in being sensitive to psychological
processes characteristic of the Chinese people.
Yeh (2003) observes that Taiwanese EFL students have a stronger visual
tendency as learners compared to their capacity for processing auditory
information and even in the display of conversation skills. It should
be remembered though that minimum proficiency in the use of any language
ought to be manifest in the development of language skills: listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. These skills, in fact, complement one
another reflective of the mind's ability for holistic rather than compartmentalized
language development.
As Swain (1987) argues, successful information encoding in language acquisition
and development is often characterized by an approach that develops skills
in listening and speaking and reading and writing across the language
curriculum. Emphasis on the co-dependence of each skill is important if
an attempt is desired towards whole language development. Sadly, it is
only in recent years that most Taiwanese teachers have begun to accept
the importance of listening and speaking alongside the traditional emphasis
on reading (Huang, 2003a; Peng, 2003; Yiu, 2003). It is also worth mentioning
that the tendency now is to emphasize communication-centered skills (see,
Liao & Chiang, 2003), which can result to the underdevelopment again
of the other language skills.
For most Taiwanese EFL college students, reliance on mere listening to
a lecture often result to forgetting and even the obvious difficulty in
making sense out of what is being heard. On the other hand, more confidence
is exhibited during reading exercises. But this confidence does not necessarily
reflect success in comprehending a given reading material (Chang, 2003).
Through reading, visual linguistic information is processed faster by
Taiwanese EFL learners with the aid of a translation device or dictionary.
There is a clear attempt to input the information into the mind but the
question remains whether they are effectively able to encode and retain
the linguistic information in the different memory systems given their
dependence on such devices. In fact, there is an aberrant tendency to
passively rely on such devices in the mere translation of words without
actively engaging students in the production and retention of meaning.
The dependency on the dictionary, therefore, has defeated the purpose
of allowing it to serve as a secondary reference.
The main storage place for vocabulary word building is the mind as developed
within the human memory system. I would like to speculate that perhaps,
the students perceive reading comprehension as an activity undertaken
through external meaning production as though the dictionary/translation
device is the main repository of knowledge and understanding. These devices
are aids or tools and these should not be mistaken as the foundations
of genuine understanding. Consequently, Huang (2003) observes that most
university students in Taiwan find it difficult to comprehend even general
texts in English. Furthermore, they are below the 3,000 word threshold
for TL proficiency. The idea of, "I see" may result to "remembering"
as in the case whenever they see the Chinese translation of the English
word that they are studying, but again, it is still different from the
development of meaning or understanding.
On the other hand, since listening is an underdeveloped skill, it is often
perceived as more difficult. Listening to auditory linguistic information
is compounded by the actual presence of a speaker, which creates anxiety
on the part of the listener especially when they try to communicate with
a foreigner (Tiangco, 2004). Liao and Chiang (2003) observe that this
must have something to do with the keen emphasis on grammar during senior
high school even for conversation classes. The students are conscious
about syntax but less able to express words that supposedly represent
their ideas. This approach has hindered the students from being able to
freely use words to represent experiences and ideas since the traditional
practice is to emphasize grammar usage even during conversation exercises.
This also reflects a consistent preoccupation in teaching students textbook
English even in listening courses in order to prepare them for the test
culture within the country (see, Chang, 2003). As a result, the students
are not able to fully develop a foundational TL semantic structure enough
to allow them to understand what they are hearing (Teng, 2003). Auditory
linguistic information is assimilated into the mind but not much meaning
making is undertaken resulting to a difficulty on the part of the listener
to complete the communication loop (Tsai, 2003).
From a theoretical standpoint, the paper argues that EFL teaching should
attempt at ensuring that both visual and auditory linguistic information
are assimilated and well encoded into the long-term memory system through
elaborate rehearsal and that Taiwanese EFL learners should be made aware
that the encoded information can be consciously developed into an organized
semantic structure. Specifically within the Taiwanese context, Tsai (2003)
also asserts the same importance in integrating cognitive psycholinguistics
in enhancing both EFL teaching and learning. The following are more specific
considerations:
Learning
is Developmental: A Response to Rote Memorization
In consideration
of Taiwanese EFL learners within a developmental framework, the ratio
of inputted information should be slightly less than the processed information
and the information retrieved for use and practice in the output phase.
Lesson, course, and curriculum programming plays an important role wherein
each element should be situated within a framework sensitive to cognitive
development. In Taiwan, there is an aberrant tendency to cram information
inwards into the mind of the learners without giving them adequate opportunities
to use or apply the said words to form meaningful sentences (Tiangco,
2004). Wang (2003) even observes that some students memorize words without
even knowing how to pronounce the said words. All the more, it is in question
whether these same students really know the meaning and the different
context-specific use of the words. A long list of vocabulary words can
usually be found on their notebooks, which they attempt to memorize without
truly understanding the meanings of the word. As Peng (2003) avers, Taiwanese
teachers are notorious for emphasizing rote memorization.
Such an approach only leads to information overload and the eventual experience
of having a mental block as an attempt is undertaken to retrieve the information.
Just like a computer the mind stalls in such an event resulting to an
impediment in the smooth flow of information processing and retrieval.
Moreover, such an approach makes the study of vocabulary words isolated
from the production of genuine comprehension and understanding since it
only develops lower levels of mental processing. Memorization is important
but more scientifically significant is in understanding how the mind actually
processes information by creating semantic structures towards the production
of meaning (see Vygotsky, 1986; Barrow, 1990). It is pertinent to develop
higher-order cognitive processes that cannot be achieved through rote
memorization.
As a response, the frequent use and retrieval of the linguistic information
through oral and written communication exercises are more important than
overloading college students with vocabulary words to memorize (see also,
Honeyfield, 1987). The acquisition of vocabulary words is a lifelong process.
At the very least, a sound foundation should be established to permit
higher order forms of learning. A developmental language curriculum should
emphasize opportunities for frequent retrieval of the encoded linguistic
information not just through tests but other creative strategies as well
not usually encountered in a traditional Taiwanese classroom. As long
as the foundations of TL learning are stable, students can advance step
by step into higher order learning (Singleton, 1999). It can be observed
that some Taiwanese college and university students majoring in English
with low proficiency of the TL are enrolled in highly content-based courses
even on their freshman year. Other students in their junior or senior
year have to grapple with highly-specialized courses such as World Mythology,
Linguistics, Principles of Teaching, etc. using thick textbooks in English,
which they are not really able to understand. Consequently, they learn
these content-based courses with teachers using the native language as
a medium of instruction. As this happens, the issue goes back to learning
the English language using the Chinese language and its worldviews.
Failure in providing stability in the foundations of language development
can result to difficulties in enabling the learner to fully advance in
their study of the English language. Such difficulties are clearly manifested
in the inability of the learner to achieve success in using skills in
listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The proper development of these
skills is held back in the process. As these skills are underdeveloped,
the learners' confidence judgment in using these necessary skills is also
consequently affected. It is worse when the learners' EFL semantic structure
collapses due to high anxiety often resulting to an inability to display
even basic proficiency (see, Liao, 1999). A considerable number of Taiwanese
EFL learners tend to engage in self-defeating thoughts truly signifying
the lack of confidence (see also, Wang, 2003). As also previously mentioned,
most of them easily get intimidated with foreign native speakers or peers
who display EFL/ESL proficiency, which often adds to the experience of
anxiety (see, Cheng, 1997).
Weak language foundations consequently result to inadequate language learning
that hinders TL learning advancement. And yet, competitive demands are
in place for the Taiwanese to face if they would like better career opportunities
through the mastery of English. To cope with such a predicament, the Taiwanese
spend more by studying in cram schools, which is phenomenally popular
in the country (Liu, 2002). Most of them turn to these privately owned
language center for their EFL learning needs wherein the presence of foreign
native speakers is highly valued. A perception has been created that successful
EFL learning is best achieved through the language centers and not in
formal schooling. This shouldn't be and this is a wake up call in regards
to the effectiveness of the current strategies being employed within the
different formal learning institutions (see also, Thompson, 2003).
Learning
is an Organized Activity: Enhancing by Organizing the Memory Systems
Since it
was mentioned that knowledge production involves semantic organization,
then some housekeeping can prove vital in the learning process. Just imagine
a messy room as the memory systems of the human mind and the things scattered
around the room as elemental information. Retrieval is definitely going
to be difficult if in the first place one does not know where to find
the needed information or even determine where to start looking. Therefore,
it is salient to organize and to learn strategies in effectively storing
and retrieving information (Hong & Huang, 1998). Learning techniques
and strategies to improve the retention of the linguistic information
in the memory systems are equally as important as studying listening,
writing, speaking or reading (Huang, 1997). These techniques such as mnemonics,
elaborate rehearsal and the development of psychological scripts are crucial
in ensuring that the linguistic information being studied by the students
are permanently stored in the hard disk of the human mind (see, Medin,
Ross & Markman, 2001 for a discussion on the various cognitive techniques
used for enhancing and organizing the memory systems).
Although Teng (2003) noticed no significant difference between Taiwanese
EFL students who received listening strategies similar to the techniques
mentioned and students who did not receive training in the strategies
as measured by their listening performance, it can be argued that memory
systems organization does not take place as a one shot deal. Huang (1997),
Hong and Huang (1998), and Yeh (2003) have a different set of observations
with their Taiwanese research samples in contrast to Teng's (2003) research
outcomes. It can be argued then that enhancing the memory system is part
of developmental learning that emphasizes consistency and theoretical
consolidation across the different courses encompassed by a developmental
curriculum.
Asides from this, organizing the different memory systems used to store
linguistic information is also important to facilitate in the retrieval
process and in minimizing interference among inter-language information.
Paying attention to the organization of the encoding-storage-retrieval
processes facilitates in minimizing "Chinglish" phenomenon.
By means of developing and organizing independent language memory systems
such as an English memory system and a separate Chinese-Mandarin or Taiwanese
memory system, any linguistic information that is encoded can be filtered
for storage in the most appropriate memory system. Thus, bilingual or
multi-lingual communication can be undertaken by retrieving information
from the particular memory system the information has been stored in.
Purposively developing each memory system independent of the other can
minimize inter-language problems (Selinker, 1992).
Learning
is a Conscious Endeavor: The Role of Metacognition
The metacognitive
domain is another important aspect of language development that both Taiwanese
students and teachers should be aware of (Yeh, 2003). Metacognition refers
to learning about the learning process (Bernardo, 1998; Medin, Ross &
Markman, 2001). Taiwanese students should be made aware as to how they
process information to enable them to understand how they think (Tian,
2004). By doing so, the students shall be equipped to regulate their own
learning and seek strategies that they think best responds to their learning
needs as they grapple with the English language. This awareness facilitates
in enabling both students and teachers to understand their own learning
styles and strategies (Taylor, 1990).
Moreover, it helps teachers and students understand individual differences
and similarities in the processing of information (Huang, 1997). Developing
metacognitive awareness can also be undertaken in relation to the earlier
section on, enhancing by organizing the memory systems. Consciousness
can be developed regarding the possibility of creating a memory system
for English study, which is apart from their Chinese domain knowledge.
Theoretically, it should be noted that these memory systems do not necessarily
function independent from one another. Metacognitive awareness for this
part focuses more on a consciousness of memory housekeeping. It should
also be remembered that the application of metacognitive theory is not
only for this area alone. There are other applications as well such as
awareness of language learning strategies, learning styles, environmental
factors that facilitate learning, etc. Specifically, Chen (1998) investigated
the area of metamotivation in learning English among Taiwanese students.
On the other hand, Chang (1998) studied the different learning styles
of Taiwanese students. Hence, helping students develop metacognitive awareness
encompasses different applications in the learning process.
Learning
has a Heart: Understanding the Affective Domain
The affective
domain of language learning is also important (Bernardo, 1998). Emotions
have a way of either facilitating or hampering learning (Krashen, 1987).
The presence of emotional anxiety keeps us on our feet ever alert to respond
to the external environment. Too much anxiety, on the other hand, significantly
blocks the learning process (Taylor, 1990). Anxious learners are not able
to assimilate information nor are they able to retrieve the needed information
to perform a task (Liao, 1999). Consequently, the presence of anxiety
influences the learners' motivation to learn and the very process of learning
itself (Krashen, 2003). Su (2004) mentions, learning English ought to
be pleasurable in sustaining the motivation of Taiwanese students to learn
EFL. If college students often encounter unrewarding learning experiences,
it is not surprising that their interest to study is affected in the process.
This assertion is definitely applicable to Taiwanese students as also
observed by Cheng (1997), Chen (1998), Liao (1999), and Tiangco (2004).
In relation to this, it is important to equally emphasize an atmosphere
of collaboration among the students instead of competition (see, Baker,
2003). Academic competitiveness is a trait observable among some students
given the demands that Taiwanese parents place on their children. Research
also indicates that this push from the parents often result to school
phobia and much experience of study-related anxiety (Cheung, 1986). Although
competitiveness is a prized trait, the sense of academic achievement among
the students should not be devoid of developing a nurturing educational
environment. By creating an atmosphere conducive to cooperative learning,
the potentials of the students can be better realized. Furthermore, there
seems to be a need to re-orient the achievement expectations that parents
have towards their children. The teachers, on the other hand, should learn
how to connect with their language learners more (Horwitz, 1999).
Behavioral
Psychology and Social-Environmental Learning:
Implications to EFL Learning in Taiwan
As equally
important perspectives in psychology, the behavioral perspective and social
learning theory cannot be considered as outdated especially in consideration
of its implications to education (Bustos & Espiritu, 1996). There
is a clear use for the behavioral perspective other than its application
in the practice of rote memorization, audio-lingual repetition, and the
traditional behavioral approach to role-playing. Given that learning can
be understood in different ways as reflected in the multiplicity of educational
theories, the behavioral standpoint specifically emphasizes conditioning,
reinforcement, stimulus response, and the strong influence of both social
interaction and the environment as determinants of learning outcomes.
In this perspective, the use of language is viewed as a learned behavior
(Clarke & Silberstein, 1987; Wolfson, 1998).
Within this framework, weak TL learning can be understood as a form of
faulty learning. If a student attempting to learn a particular language
fails in doing so, the behavioral perspective views the shortcoming in
terms of an inadequacy in the language training being provided or certain
learned behaviors on the part of both students and teachers that hinder
the learning process. As an example, the association between the linguistic
sign and the thing being signified has not been strongly forged. Poor
stimulus-response conditioning can also typify students who give the wrong
response for a given linguistic stimulus such as saying, "I am fine"
when asked, "How is the weather today?" Furthermore, the lack
of proper learning reinforcement is another consideration. Students may
passively commit grammatical errors in both written and oral communication
since some of these errors are tolerated within the learning environment
given the absence of a reward or punishment system.
On the part of social-environmental factors that hinder the learning process,
poor modeling on the part of the teachers and the lack of a social learning
environment that approximates the environment wherein the TL is used are
important social learning considerations (Williams & Burden, 1997).
As the development of a first or native language is largely a social activity
undertaken by the native speakers of the language within their social
and environmental context, it proves helpful to manipulate aspects of
the EFL learners' environment to approximate an environment wherein the
TL is used.
In connection to this, behavioral modification can be introduced in the
learning process to manipulate learning outcomes to achieve desired results
(Bustos & Espiritu, 1996). The modification process specifically pertains
to undoing or unlearning improper behaviors that hinder the process of
language learning. Doing so includes modifying learning conditions such
as the educational system and the elements that constitute this system.
By working on the elements external to the learners themselves such as
the teachers, the learning environment, and the other important aspects
of the educational system, the modifications undertaken indirectly trickle
down as positive learning outcomes for EFL students (Williams & Burden,
1997; Wolfson, 1998). The following are the specific implications of both
the behavioral and social-environmental perspectives to EFL learning in
Taiwan:
Social
Learning and Emphasizing English as a Medium of Communication
Improving
Teacher EFL Proficiency for the Benefit of the Students: A Social-Behavioral
Perspective
As Oladejo
(2003) observes, since some Taiwanese teachers themselves handling English
courses are not communicably proficient enough, not much can also be expected
from the students. This is particularly observable among teachers in the
rural areas of the country given the unequal distribution of educational
resources and learning opportunities in spite of the fact that Taiwan
is a relatively small country with a very progressive economy. Although
this is the case, it does not necessarily mean that nothing can be done
to improve the situation as the Ministry of Education has been seeking
ways to augment the current concerns that befall the system.
It can be argued that teachers from colleges and universities in the metropolitan
areas of Taiwan display better proficiency compared to their counterparts
from the rural areas. In a study that involved selected Taiwanese college
and university teachers who belong to different Applied Foreign Languages
Departments, Chang (2002) found out that most of these teachers expressed
the readiness and willingness to handle English conversation courses.
If this is the case, then it is very important to provide Taiwanese teachers
every opportunity to further practice their English communication skills.
Regardless of the location - whether urban or rural, the paper argues
that more opportunities should be created to strengthen the use of English
as a medium of instruction and as a medium of communication among students
and teachers not only during EFL classes but outside formal instruction
as well.
In connection to this, opportunities should also be institutionalized
to provide Taiwanese teachers handling English courses more time to communicate
with their foreign colleagues to enhance their English skills. Weekly
professional activities such as discussion groups, research forums, and
collaborative researches involving the Taiwanese and foreign faculty members
are effective strategies for creating such a necessary environment. In
the process, the Taiwanese teachers are able to sharpen their English
communication skills, which in return shall be beneficial to the students.
Hence, an environment of collaboration instead of individualism is instrumental.
As Baker (2003) argues for the importance of collaboration among students,
I would like to argue for strengthened collaboration among faculty members
even at the tertiary level in spite of individual busy schedules. Furthermore,
given the growing cross-cultural and sub-cultural diversity in the foreign
languages departments in Taiwan, it is a challenge to make the apparent
cultural differences work to the advantage of the department, among colleagues,
and especially the students.
Although Chinese culture at times perceives the presence of foreigners
as a nuisance (see, Bond & Hwang, 1986 for a discussion on the social
psychology of Chinese people), the flux of foreign teachers signifies
the need to strengthen cross-cultural cooperation. On the part of the
Taiwanese/Chinese, mutual cooperation and tolerance can go a long way
in providing successful learning outcomes for all the members of the system.
On the other hand, foreigners should remember to always exercise sensitivity
and even restraint in confronting cross-cultural or sub-cultural idiosyncrasies
in the workplace. By developing an organizational attitude and workplace
atmosphere that emphasizes and rewards cooperation, some foreigners need
not be looked upon as a nuisance nor should some of their local counterparts
be regarded as uncooperative.
Improving
the EFL Proficiency of the Students: Re-thinking the "English Only
Policy" and The Use of English as a Medium of Instruction for the
Taiwanese
For most
Taiwanese tertiary students, the study of English is usually limited to
the formal discussions inside the classroom and some occasional extra-curricular
activities that require students to speak the language. Students often
perceive the classroom as a place for evaluation, which tend to create
anxiety especially among those who lack the confidence to speak.
Opportunities to communicate in English outside the classroom can be very
beneficial to the students. Particularly, if both foreign and the Taiwanese
English teachers make it a habit to communicate with their students using
English during informal encounters, then the use of the TL can be reinforced.
An EFL atmosphere is strengthened between the students, the teachers,
and even perhaps among the students themselves.
Taiwanese teachers handling English courses have a bigger responsibility
in reinforcing the use of the TL since they have more opportunities to
interact with the students compared to the foreign faculty members. It
is equally important to emphasize that doing so is not simply the responsibility
of faculty members handling courses that involve oral communication. All
faculty members, as much as they can, should be enjoined to develop the
skills of the students inside and outside the regular classroom.
Perhaps, this assertion may not be new especially in consideration of
the usual, "Speak English Only Policy" that most schools try
to implement. And yet, it is in question whether such a policy does exist
among Taiwanese tertiary institutions or whether it is successfully being
implemented. The paper presumes that success or non-success hinges on
whether both students and teachers truly understand the theoretical considerations
and foundations of such a policy other than telling the students that
such a policy is being implemented. There is a tendency to pay lip service
to the policy without truly understanding its implications to the psychology
of EFL development. Therefore, creating awareness, understanding, and
advocacy for the policy plays an important role within the EFL educational
system. It can also be rather convincing to present to the students that
such language learning strategies are actually the application of different
theories important in the field of EFL, ESL, and ESP. In relation to the
previous discussions, doing so relates to developing metacognitive awareness.
A bolder leap is to consider the gradual teaching of general education
courses being taken by students majoring in EFL using English as a medium
of instruction. This assertion is not without issues and criticisms. As
far as the use of English as a medium of instruction in Hong Kong, Herbert
(2002) observes difficulties among students particularly in understanding
the textbooks and reference materials used in class.
In Taiwan, the very first concern is in regards to the preparedness of
the teachers and second is in relation to the preparedness of the students.
This is an attempt worth taking if an eventual shift is foreseen from
EFL to ESL. As far as long term planning is concerned, every college and
university should start preparing general education faculty members who
can teach content courses in English. Adequate teacher training should
be allotted for this task alongside the preparation and publication of
a simplified English version of the readings and lecture discussions to
be used in class. There shouldn't be a reliance on Western developed materials
and English books. Instead, a challenge pervades to indigenize English
into the Taiwanese culture and not to simply assimilate foreign cultures
as its own amidst the country's effort towards globalization.
Hence, teaching modules across different subject areas such as mathematics,
natural sciences, human sciences, history, etc. should be developed that
reflects Taiwanese values and culture.
As Cates (1998) mentions, it is important for the Taiwanese to understand
global issues and how language learning can contribute in realizing a
better world. In spite of the need to prepare the Taiwanese for globalization,
it is an equally important challenge to ensure the strengthening of their
national identity as a people and their distinctiveness from the Chinese.
Joseph (1999) argues for the need to foster a strong linguistic identity
on the part of the Taiwanese people.
Asides from this, repeatedly emphasizing and reinforcing a set of vocabulary
words throughout the curriculum are important challenges in developing
the EFL program. The purpose is to provide the students frequent exposure
to these vocabulary words to reinforce learning. Mastery is the key element
given the repeated exposure to the stimulus being learned (Honeyfield,
1987). The students can be afforded the opportunity to read, listen, and
speak the vocabulary words not just in one class but in other classes
as well. Most importantly, vocabulary words should be connected to the
lived experiences of the Taiwanese other than just being dense words decontextualized
of true meaning. By doing so, the use of English as a medium of instruction
is enhanced since behavioral programming is integrated in the process.
Creating
an English Friendly Environment
The educational
environment of the Applied Foreign Languages Department ought to be English
friendly. Since the main thrust of most of the AFL departments in Taiwan
focuses on English teaching and learning, then it is important that the
atmosphere itself in the department facilitates in the learning process.
An effort should be undertaken to translate more organizational information
from Chinese to English or to have a bilingual set-up. If the goal is
to create an environment conducive to the TL study, then both intradepartmental
and interdepartmental communications should shift towards the use of English
as a medium of organizational communication especially for those majoring
in this area.
It is also important to institutionalize extra-curricular activities that
promote the use of the TL. As mentioned, learning the TL should not be
limited to formal classroom instruction. Extra-curricular activities such
as student clubs, organizing a newsletter group, organizing a school drama
group or theater guild, etc. are all important strategies in creating
an EFL friendly environment that allows the students to enjoy themselves.
As an example, an acoustic guitar club can be organized for student musicians
to learn popular acoustic songs that are in English. Moreover, these students
can develop their EFL skills further by eventually composing their own
songs and lyrics. Peer English tutoring groups can also be established.
Outreach projects such as tutoring a minority or marginalized group or
even elementary students can be undertaken by tertiary EFL students.
Re-Thinking
the Traditional Role-Playing Activity: A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach
Role-playing
is also definitely an important aspect in the development of English language
skills. In Taiwan, the traditional role-playing approach usually develops
the reading and listening skills of the students involved in the dialogue
being role-played. They are usually tasked to either read or act out a
conversation script from the book. The problem though with such an approach
is that it can be rather mechanistic especially if listening comprehension
and high-order processing are not emphasized.
As a modification, role-playing should be more oriented towards the cognitive-behavioral
perspective. The cognitive aspect focuses more in developing the problem-solving
skills and creativity of the students, which are at times left out in
the traditional role-playing approach. For college and university students,
I suggest the use of what can be called as Spontaneous Situational Role-Playing
(SSRP) with the aim of making the students retrieve previously learned
linguistic information through guided free talk among the students themselves
or with the teacher. The approach is characterized by describing to the
students a particular situation that they are going to role-play. The
students are given the task to think and anticipate the communication
patterns accounted for by the situation. This is in contrast to the traditional
approach wherein the students have a ready-made conversation script that
they simply read out. In the process of utilizing the SSRP, the students
develop their own communication patterns by writing down their own script
based on a scenario or the situation given by the teacher. There shouldn't
be heavy reliance on the conversation scripts found on the books of the
students so that the students can be taught to be imaginative by allowing
them to make their own scripts.
From a theoretical vantage point, the approach places the students in
a situation wherein they need to retrieve previously encoded information
and exercise creativity in the transfer of learning to respond to the
situation being role-played. Such an approach develops skills in listening,
speaking and thinking. More importantly, it enables the practice of spoken
language through the use of guided free talk and the enhancement of creativity
on the part of the learners.
Recommendations
Based on
the earlier discussions regarding the contemporary psychological perspectives
and its implications to Taiwanese EFL learning, recommendations are presented
for the following areas: a) Curriculum Planning and Implementation and
b) Teacher Training.
Curriculum
Planning and Implementation
Curriculum
planning and development plays a very significant role in the educational
process. The mandate of any educational program lies in its curriculum.
Hence, the heart of whatever efforts there are to teach students EFL should
be consolidated within the language curriculum and consequent language
policies (Judd, 1987). A language curriculum provides the over-all direction
for the individual language courses taught in a particular program. More
importantly, the language curriculum articulates the end goal of the educational
process and the steps by which to achieve success in developing the potentials
of the students as language learners.
Often times, tertiary education is left with more autonomy to govern its
own curriculum and programs compared to both elementary and secondary
education. Less control is exercised over the learning process, which
can result to the dissipation of a clear purposiveness within the tertiary
educational system of a particular institution. First of all, a language
curriculum should be developmental in orientation taking into consideration
both language and cognitive development and the present developmental
capacity of the language learners. Second, a theoretical paradigm should
support and consolidate the language curriculum, language policies, and
the teaching strategies. This is meant to provide more organization to
the different aspects of the curriculum. Although the selection of what
may be considered as the most effective paradigm is a contentious issue,
nevertheless, I would like to argue for the viability of the cognitive-behavioral
paradigm in understanding the educational process. Third, an indigenized
language curriculum should reflect the highest values of Taiwanese society
and the values necessary to equip Taiwanese students at the tertiary level
to become socially responsible individuals with a sense of national pride
ready for internationalization. At the same time, it is also important
for the language curriculum to develop their sensitivity to differences
across cultures, and yet, strengthen the students' sense of being a Taiwanese
who respects and accepts other cultures.
Teacher
Training
I firmly
believe that at the forefront of developing Taiwan into a society proficient
in using the English language are the Taiwanese teachers and not the foreign
teachers. As of now, much work has to be done to improve the English proficiency
not only of the Taiwanese teachers handling English courses but also the
other teachers as well who are handling general education subjects. The
role of foreign teachers should be limited to temporary support and the
long-term vision should be geared in developing the full potentials of
the present Taiwanese teaching force. I have observed that much of the
training undertaken by foreign teachers is for the students. As far as
long-term planning is concerned, improving the EFL/ESL competencies of
most of the tertiary educators in Taiwan shall pave the way for the emergence
of a bilingual/multilingual language system among tertiary schools. First,
native teachers outnumber the foreign teachers. Taiwanese teachers have
the bulk of classroom time.
By using a multiplier effect, foreign teachers who focus on developing
the competencies of the Taiwanese teachers are able to indirectly develop
the language skills of more students. The full utilization of the professional
resources available among educational institutions is a must and more
importantly is to instill a culture of collaboration among the foreigners
and the native Taiwanese to dispel any form of competition (see also,
Oladejo, 2003). EFL learning is a shared responsibility among the teachers
handling different courses. Although the burden of teaching English is
placed on the shoulders of the English teachers, reinforcement of learning
is achieved through a collaborative environment that involves all other
members of the school community.
Conclusion
The paper
argues that tertiary education has an important role in assisting students
acquire, develop, and more importantly to refine their skills in using
the English language. Taiwanese students regardless of their major or
the discipline that they are pursuing should be given the same opportunities
to develop their EFL skills to enable them to become more professionally
and globally competitive. In doing so, the author proposes for the use
of contemporary perspectives in psychology as a consolidating framework
in the development and implementation of the language curriculum. Taiwanese
students do not have to spend so much money and time in learning the English
language by going to cram schools or business-oriented language centers.
The burden of ensuring optimum language learning and development should
be undertaken by the formal educational system. Therefore, a re-orientation
of the system presents a clear challenge not only to the administration
but all the faculty members who are part of the system as well. Dependency
on foreign teachers should not be created but instead collaboration can
be instilled in developing the full potential of the Taiwanese teaching
force with the vision of enabling them to bring about positive EFL development
among the students.
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