Abstract:
This
article explores how English Education in Japan should be planned and
performed from the sociocultural perspective and is based on the belief
that mediation plays a significant role for human development and learning.
This paper supports the idea that (with the consideration of sociocultural
theory) teaching should not only focus on the development of linguistic
knowledge but also help to foster students' abilities to learn and think
independently as their awareness of identity, culture, and society develop
and expand in formal classroom settings.
Key
Words: Sociocultural theory, Zone of Proximal development, English
education curriculum, English Education in Japan
Sociocultural
thought and language teaching
Sociocultural approaches to learning and development were first organized
and applied by L. S. Vygotsky in Russia in the 1920s and 1930s. They
are based on the concept that learning can develop effectively when
learners use their minds and available tools while engaged in activities.
Language is, of course, one of the major tools, but other things like
gesture can be included as well. According to Wertsch (1985), the sociocultural
perspective encompasses social interaction as contingent upon language
and gesture which are appropriated by the individual to form the instrumental
tools for thinking and problem solving.
There are four essential points related to sociocultural theory: mediation,
thinking and speaking, zone of proximal development (ZPD), and interaction.
Mediation
Lantolf (2000) addresses that "the most fundamental concept of
sociocultural theory is that the human mind is mediated" (p.1).
Mediation takes place as long as human beings have an opportunity to
consider what they are doing or what they have just learned. This permits
us to connect and extend our knowledge and skills for further learning
which may affect our beliefs, views of the world, identity, and cultural
and social awareness.
Thinking and Speaking
Vygotsky viewed the initial function of speech as a mediator (Minick,
1997). In the process of speaking, they check whether their words or
sentences are appropriate in each situation or not, whether their speaking
is what they want to tell or not, how much they understand what they
want to tell or what they have just listened to or learned, what their
interlocutor' reaction (e.g., facial expression, verbal response) is,
and so on.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
In addition, Vygotsky emphasized the essential role of zone of proximal
development (ZPD) in learning. He defined it as the distance between
the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving
and the level of potential development as determined through problem
solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with peers (Vygotsky,
1978, p.86). According to the concept of ZPD, learners can move into
their next level with their peers' or teachers' assistance while using
language as the primary tool during this activity.
Interaction
In the ZPD, we notice that it is indispensable for learners to interact
with others because the ZPD needs at least more than two people to actively
develop. Vygotsky claimed that speech is the most widely used and important
means employed by humans to organize social interaction, to regulate
others, and to regulate oneself (Wertsch, 1981, p.24). With effective
interaction, especially through speaking with their peers or teachers,
learners naturally develop and extend their linguistic knowledge.
The Curriculum of English Education for Lower Secondary Schools (Grades
7-9) in Japan
In recent years the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science, and Technology (MEXT) has been emphasizing a renewed vision
of English language education. However, if the vision proposed by MEXT
is to be realized then we administrators, teachers, and teacher-educators
in Japan may need to approach English language teaching from a different
perspective that incorporates more opportunities for authentic language
use during communicative, goal-oriented activities in smaller classrooms.
It is worth stating that sociocultural theory, per se, is not a theory
of second language acquisition or second language learning. But, it
is a theory of general human development, interaction, and learning
where (as previously stated) we use language to mediate the world around
us. This, in turn, assists in second language learning.
We now move on to describe past English Education in Japan and examine
what (MEXT) emphasizes today and the purpose of English Education. The
focus here is on lower secondary schools, junior high schools, for 7th
to 9th grade students.
Traditional English Education
In the past, teaching styles were very teacher-centered. Arguably, the
traditional purpose of English Education in Japan has as only passing
entrance examinations. The emphasis to learn English was on grammar,
reading, and writing skills that dominate the most part of the entrance
examinations. The purpose of English curriculum in Japan was to train
students to read and write English, relying on grammatical analysis
and translation to and from Japanese as the primary methods. To achieve
this, students practiced a lot of drills and repetitions so that they
could get accustomed to grammar that was also the key to translate analytically
to and from Japanese in reading and writing. Dorfman also reported that
students had 105 classes per year, and they were supposed to learn approximately
350 words each year.
English education, in the above framework, is teacher-centered. As Wray
(1999) describes, there were almost no opportunities for students to
discuss, provide their opinions, or do group problem solving. One of
the reasons for this instruction was due to the large number of students
in one class. There were about forty or more students per class. Therefore,
it was easy for teachers to organize a class with teacher-centered style
and "lecture-style" (Fukuzawa, 1996, p.317).
As for teacher quality, a high level of English proficient was not necessarily
required. Teachers needed to have basic grammar knowledge of English,
but they were not required to have skillful conversation abilities.
This is because, as previously mentioned, English Education focused
on more grammar, reading, and writing skills that did not require conversational
skills.
In order for English language education in Japan to become revitalized
and use traditional thought as a foundation rather than a goal we believe
that sociocultural theory helps us to reframe the activity of language
use and teaching in Japanese classrooms as well as the general curriculum.
Improvement of the Curriculum of English Education
The curriculum council started to reconsider the curriculum and implemented
the new course of study from 1998 to 2002. The council realized it was
necessary for children to catch up with globalization and English plays
an important role as the common international language. According to
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT,
2003a), the curriculum council especially realized that it was essential
for children to acquire communication abilities in English to live in
the twenty-first century. Although this wasn't a drastic change from
their previous assertions, it is the first time that we see MEXT making
such a concerted and concentrated effort in the field of English language
education.
MEXT (1998) states that general purpose of education is "to help
children develop their own identity and faculties from early childhood
to adolescence." It also states "school's primary role is
to motivate children to learn and teach them how to learn" (MEXT,
1998). In the course of study for lower secondary school made by MEXT,
the overall objects of foreign languages (mainly English) are "to
develop students' basic practical communication abilities such as listening
and speaking, depending the understanding of language and culture, and
fostering a positive attitude toward communication through foreign languages"
(MEXT, 2003b). In consideration of these overall objectives for foreign
languages, there are several issues that MEXT points out to improve
English Education today.
It is obvious that students need to acquire basic skills of writing,
reading, listening, and speaking. However, because MEXT stresses the
essential role of communication ability, speaking and listening abilities
are more highlighted. We should notice that MEXT now focuses on the
actual use of English in which students will need to have when they
go outside the classroom to interact with people in English, not on
only grammar skill like traditional teaching style. If we are focusing
on the actual use of English rather than its linguistic properties then
we begin to see how sociocultural theory addresses the stated objectives
of MEXT.
Moreover, MEXT (1998) stresses that through education, teachers have
to help children develop ability to learn and think independently. As
a result, teachers no longer have to focus on grammar and translation
skills, but they need to provide useful activities for students to have
opportunities to learn how to develop independently so that they can
apply it to other occasions and to think about what they have just learned
so that they can extend their belief, view of the world, awareness of
identity as well as social and cultural awareness.
Furthermore, MEXT indicates that teachers need to deepen students' understanding
from a wider perspective, enhance their awareness of being Japanese
living in a global community, and cultivate a spirit of international
cooperation (MEXT, 2003b). Language teachers have the responsibility
to teach the English language, but they also have to foster students'
self and cultural awareness through well-balanced teaching. Language
teaching no longer entails just teaching a language, but it also encompasses
how we address and foster our students' potential to develop as a global
citizen within a local context.
MEXT not only addresses enhancing students' self and cultural awareness,
but also the strengthening the motivation for English learning (MEXT,
2003a). With higher motivation, students can develop their language
knowledge and hopefully they can find their own purpose for learning
English in their communities or the world.
Reframing English Language Teaching in Japan
First, since there are too many students per class and teachers cannot
pay attention to each individual, MEXT now tries to "implement
the 20 students per class system" (MEXT, 2001). In a small number
of class structure, it is much easier for teachers and students to interact
with each other. This will help schools avoid 100 % teacher-centered
instruction and create more opportunities for language use during goal-oriented,
classroom activities.
Second, MEXT addresses that "making use of assistant language teachers
(ALTs)" whose native language is English should positively be adopted
(MEXT, 2003a). MEXT has been hiring ALTs and reports that approximately
8,400 ALTs worked at public schools between 2001 and 2002. With ALTs,
students have opportunities to use the actual English with native speakers
of English that can cause them to have higher motivation to learn English.
Also, ALTs can introduce the actual English and their cultures by cooperating
with Japanese English teachers in classes and may help to motivate students
who see language as more than grammar-oriented instruction.
Third, MEXT would like to upgrade the teaching abilities of English
teachers (MEXT, 2003a). For example, MEXT (2002) offers domestic training
for 2,000 teachers per year and overseas trainings approximately 150
people including short- and long-term. It also establishes the targets
for teachers to have: 550 points of paper TOEFL, 730 points of TOEIC.
In addition, Kawamura (2004) states that MEXT would like to introduce
a teacher certificate renewal system. We believe that this a crucial
step in revitalizing English language education in Japan, but we also
warn against creating instructors that fit only one mold. Language proficiency
is crucial for all language educators, but we need not loose focus of
the human aspects of education as well.
Fourth, MEXT encourages schools to connect with their local communities.
For example, MEXT suggests that schools invite people who have to do
with English from their local communities to introduce different perspective
to students. It also encourages students "to participate in community
services and various programs" (MEXT, 2001).
More importantly, MEXT emphasizes the improvement of English language
ability with Japanese language ability. This concept is necessary for
students because fostering students' abilities to express themselves
appropriately and understand accurately in Japanese as well as enhance
their communication abilities in Japanese play important roles for them
to cultivate communication abilities in English. The Japanese language
is their basis of all intellectual activities. Thus, teachers have to
consider the role of students' first language and the impact of their
"first culture" on learning English as well.
English Education in Japan
As MEXT tries to reform English Education, there are some changes in
English classes these days. For example, since the materials made by
MEXT have been improved to focus on more communicative abilities, students
now have opportunities to learn better English conversational skills.
There are some improvements due to the efforts of MEXT. However, English
Education would benefit from a sociocultural perspective for several
reasons. That is to say, there are several challenges ahead before a
true sociocultural perspective can be fully implemented in Japan.
First of all, grammar focused teaching is still popular. At the beginning
of each unit, English teachers first start to teach grammar and then
teach the content of the textbook. The second reason is that students
still do a lot of drills, repetitions, and memorization of idioms and
vocabulary. It is clear that in those processes, there is no critical
thinking that fosters students' self and cultural awareness, and that
students have a hard time to apply what they have learned to other situations,
especially outside the classroom.
The third reason is that teacher-centered instruction still dominates.
We are advocating "less teaching" by the teachers. In fact,
if we return to a key of sociocultural thought, meaningful interaction,
this can accomplished by engaging students in activities. This is supported
by Ohta (1995) who found that teacher-fronted instruction provided a
narrower interaction potential for students' learning than peer activities.
The fourth reason is that the actual main purpose of learning English
for students is still to pass entrance examinations, as opposed to the
purposes of English Education by MEXT. Even though the content of the
entrance examinations has been improved to include more communicative
skills, students still need good grammar and analytical skills. This
also caused students to lose their learning motivation and not to enjoy
the process of learning English itself.
Lastly, most English teachers do not really understand the real purposes
of English Education and the content of the new course of study. This
last point is the driving force behind this article and is elaborated
on in our final discussion.
Discussion: Linking MEXT and Sociocultural thought
By comparing the proposals of English Education by MEXT with actual
English teaching, we see that the former suggests good education curriculum
to foster students' English language skills, cultural and self- awareness,
as well as critical thinking that shapes their view of the world, belief,
learning experiences, etc. This reminds us of sociocultural theory that
emphasizes mediation, thinking and speaking, ZPD, and interaction.
In order to help teachers and schools reach the goals established by
MEXT then we must address five major issues.
First of all, English teachers should be aware of purposes of English
teaching by MEXT and communicate with their colleagues to develop their
teaching approaches toward the ideal goals of English teaching. They
are the ones who can actually transfer what MEXT has proposed to the
classrooms. Their awareness of purposes of English teaching should be
enhanced. A lot of trainings and discussions and introducing the sample
teaching or handbook (just to get the ideas for effective teaching,
not necessarily for copying) should be introduced to teachers, parents,
and administrators.
Second, teachers must teach students how to learn and think independently
so that they can extend their abilities later. It is important for learners
to have their autonomy. Teachers have to provide students with opportunities
to think and with different methods of learning (e.g., use of dictionary,
summary writing, presentation, group discussion, pair work, problem
solving, etc).
Third, it is essential for language learners to become motivated. By
providing different topics and activities within the proposed framework
students feel as if they have a choice in what they want to learn, and
as Davies (2002) points out, that learner choice is key to successful
language learning in a formal classroom environment. For example, in
thematic learning, learners can choose more specific topics related
to a particular theme. If teachers focus on more content and progress
of students' learning rather than the surface (linguistic) results,
students begin to feel more comfortable and get motivated.
Fourth, teachers have to be aware that it is important for them to promote
learners' awareness of who they are, what they believe, and how they
view the world. Language learning should encourage them to establish
their identity, their own view of the world. This helps students feel
proud of themselves. Journal writing is one of good activities for this
since through interaction with peers or teachers, learners have opportunities
to think about themselves, their opinions about things or topics they
have learned.
Last, the cultural perspective should be emphasized for English teaching.
As MEXT (2003b) stresses, one of purposes of English Education is "to
foster students' awareness of being Japanese citizens living in a global
community." In the textbooks made by MEXT, there are many things
that can facilitate students' cultural awareness. However, the problem
is that teachers do not focus on them. Facilitating cultural awareness
is essential, for it also means to reflect students' culture and themselves.
To be a global person and have wider view of the world, culture has
to play be an integral role of the language classroom.
Sociocultural theory plays an important role in learning because it
views learning as mediation. It points out that learners should mediate
what know as well as how they learned during interaction with other
people. Sociocultural theory frames learning effectively because it
does not focus on only learning linguistic skills, but also on the way
learners learn and the process they shape their identities, perspective,
social and cultural awareness.
References
Davies, A. (2002). Using teacher-generated biography as input material.
ELT Journal, 56 (4), 368-378.
Fukuzawa, R. I. (1996). The path to adulthood according to Japanese
middle schools. In T. P. Rohlen, & G. K. LeTendre (Eds.), Teaching
and learning in Japan (pp.295-320). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Kawamura, T. (2004). Reforming compulsory education. Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology. Retrieved October
21, 2004, from: http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/04091701.htm
Lantolf, J. (2000). Sociocultural theory and second language learning.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Minick, N. (1997). The early history of the Vygotskian school: The relationship
between mind and activity. In M. Cole, Y. Engestrom, & O. Vasquez
(Eds.), Mind, culture, and activity: Seminal paper from the laboratory
of comparative human cognition (pp.117-127). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (1998).
National curriculum standards reform for kindergarten, elementary school,
lower and upper secondary school and schools for the visually disabled,
the hearing impaired and the otherwise disabled: Synopsis of the report.
Retrieved October 21, 2004, from: http://www.mext.go.jp/english/news/1998/07/980712.htm
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (2001).
The education reform plan for the 21st century: The rainbow plan,
the seven priority strategies. Retrieved October 21, 2004, from:
http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/21plan/010301.htm
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (2002).
Developing a strategic plan to cultivate Japanese with English abilities:
Plan to improve English and Japanese abilities. Retrieved October
11, 2004, from: http://www.mext.go.jp/english/mews/2002/07/020901.htm
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (2003a).
Regarding the establishment of an action plan to cultivate Japanese
with English abilities. Retrieved October 11, 2004, from: http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/03072801.htm
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (2003b).
The course of study for foreign languages. Retrieved October11,
2004, from: http://www.mext.go.jp/english/shotou/030301.htm
Ohta, A. S. (1995). Applying sociocultural theory to an analysis of
learner discourse: Learner-learner collaborative interaction in the
zone of proximal development. Issues in Applied Linguistics,
6, 93-121.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher
psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Wertsch, J. V. (1981). The concept of activity in Soviet psychology:
An introduction. In J.V. Wertsch (Ed.), The concept of activity in
Soviet psychology (pp.3-36). New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc.
Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Culture, communication and cognition:
Vygotskian perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wray, H. (1999). Japanese and American education: Attitudes and practices.
Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey.
