Abstract
Following innovations in the theories of intelligence and their radical changes from the  unitary concept of intelligence (IQ) to the theory of multiple intelligences (MI), and especially the concept of emotional intelligence or emotional quotient (EQ), this study sought to find out whether emotional intelligence, psychometric intelligence and verbal intelligence (VI)  have any role in the academic achievement of university students majoring in English language literature, teaching and translation. EQ, IQ, and VI data were matched with the students` academic records, at university at the end of second year. Predicting second language learning success from EQ and IQ variables produced divergent results depending on how the variables were operationalized.

When EQ variables were compared in groups (successful vs. unsuccessful) of individuals who had achieved very different levels of academic success, academic achievement was strongly associated with several dimensions of emotional intelligence (intrapersonal, stress management, and general mood competencies). When IQ variables were compared in groups (successful vs. unsuccessful) of individuals who had achieved very different levels of academic success, it was found that academic achievement did not correlate much with IQ but was strongly associated with VI which is a subsection of IQ tests. Results are discussed in the context of the importance of emotional, psychometric and verbal intelligences in second language learning.

Key words:Academic achievement, Bar-on, EQ, IQ, VI, Wechsler 

1. Introduction
It is generally accepted that some people have a knack for learning second languages and others are rather poor at it. Some immigrants become fluent, while others from the same background and living in the same circumstances for the same amount of time speak the language rather poorly. Given that their ages, motivations and so on are the same, why are there such differences? One important reason can be that they possess different language aptitudes or rather, different levels of intelligence.
  The role and meanings of the term intelligence as it has been used in second language acquisition (SLA) are significantly different for virtually all aspects of SLA. If only those individuals with what is called exceptionally high innate abilities are able to become highly proficient in a second language, then it may be sensible to arrange academic programs based on this fact. If on the other hand, it turns out that intellectual abilities are not predictive of success with a second language, the pedagogical choices are clearly quite different. For example, it is probable that an enriched understanding of innate capacity will result both in modifications of theories about how second languages are learned as well as more effective ways of teaching them. If it turns out that learners exhibit certain patterns of intellectual ability, it may be possible to devise a pedagogy that caters to these patterns and may result in more effective teaching.
  Intelligence is a slippery term to define, and there is no consensus over its definition among scholars. It has undergone different definitions, from intelligence as a unidimensional concept (Binet, 1905) to intelligence as a multiple concept (Gardner, 1983) and finally to intelligence as an emotional notion (Salovey& Mayer, 1990).
  Many researchers and lay people have become dissatisfied with a traditional, ‘narrow’ conceptualization of intelligence, which emphasizes verbal and performance IQ and other more `academic' abilities (Bar-On, 1997; Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Recently, researchers have promoted the idea that our notion of intelligence should be expanded to include `emotional intelligence' (EI), which has generally been designed as the ability to perceive, understand, and manage one's emotions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
  Emotional Quotient (EQ) is defined as “abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustration, to control impulses and delay gratification; to regulate one `s moods and keep distress from swapping the ability to think; to emphasize and to hope” (Goleman, 1995, p.34). According to this definition, emotional intelligence provides the bedrock for the development of a large number of competencies that help learners perform more effectively. Among the many factors contributing to second language learning, it could be that emotional intelligence plays a critical role in language learning and teaching.
  One of the intelligences that Gardner (1983) enumerated is verbal intelligence. Verbal Intelligence (VI) (knowledge of words, synonyms, and antonyms) is the cornerstone of language acquisition. In second language learning, teachers go out of their way to enhance it. But one important question remains to be answered: Does focusing on VI alone in class warrant success in second language learning? Or should it be accompanied by EI to be more effective? To our best knowledge, to date no research has been done on the role of EQ, IQ and VI in the academic achievement of second language learners. Therefore, this study set out to investigate the following questions.

1. Does EQ play any role in the academic achievement of students majoring in English at the end of second year at university?    
2.  Does IQ play any role in the academic achievement of students majoring in English at the end of second year at university?    
3. Does VI play any role in the academic achievement of students majoring in English at the end of second year at university?    

2. Method
2.1. Participants
A community sample of 508 people participated in this study, comprised of 134 males and 374 females between the ages of 19 and 29 (M= 21.3, SD=6.7). All of the participants were university students attending four universities in Iran, majoring in English language literature (271), translation (120), and teaching (115). They were all in their second year and passed their language proficiency courses including: Reading, Writing, Listening, and Speaking. These students were asked if they would volunteer to participate in a study on “intelligence and second language learning”. Out of 508 participants who completed the EQ questionnaires, only 300 participants accepted to participate in the IQ interview. 

2.2. Measures and Procedures
In September (2006), at the start of the academic year, participants completed the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i; Bar-On, 1997). The Bar-On EQ-i (Bar-On, 1996), was originally designed in 1980 by Bar-On.  It is a self-report scale, including 133 items, which measures five broad areas of skills or competencies and 15 factorial components (Bar-On, 1997).

Competencies	Components	Items
Intrapersonal	Emotional self-awareness Assertiveness Self-regard Self-actualization Independence	8 7 9 9 7
Interpersonal	Empathy Interpersonal Interrelationship Social responsibility	8 11 10
Adaptability	Problem solving Reality testing Flexibility	8 10 8
Stress management	Stress tolerance Impulse control	9 9
General mood	Happiness Optimism	9 8

However, 15 of the questions are associated with scales intended to assess response validity. Omission Rate, Inconsistency Index, Positive Impression, and Negative Impression scales. An example from the EQ questionnaire is “It does not bother me to take advantage of people, especially if they deserve it.” Subjects respond on a 5-point Likert type scale continuum from “Very seldom or Not true of me” to “Very often or True of me.” 
  For the EQ-i (Bar-On, 1996) high and low scores are identified by their distance from the mean score of 100. Scores exceeding the mean or falling below the mean by 1 SD (15 points) are considered to be within the normal range. Since the test was timed, the participants were asked to complete it in 40 minutes.
 The development of the EQ-i took place over many years, starting with the development of a conceptual framework and leading to the construction and refinement of scale items. Validity scales and correction indexes were added over time to improve measurement. A substantial body of research, summarized in the EQ-i manual (1997), indicates that the scales have generally good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Factor analyses also provide some support for the construct validity of the questionnaire. Finally, the convergent and discriminant validity of the EQ-i has been evaluated in a number of ways. Many studies examined correlations between the EQ-i and various self-report inventories, including the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (Cattell, Eber & Tatsouka, 1970), the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975) and the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen & Kaemmer, 1989). In general, EQ-i total scores are correlated positively with measures of emotional stability and negatively with measures of neuroticism and psychopathology. Other studies have examined correlations between the EQ-i and peer ratings of adjustment or compared the EQ-i scores of criterion groups (e.g. young business leaders versus unemployed youth; prisoners versus community residents) and support the conclusion that EQ-i scores are related to general
psychosocial adjustment.

In view of the cultural differences and to avoid any misunderstanding regarding the content of the questionnaire for lower-level students, the translated version of this questionnaire (Dehshiry, 2003) was employed. In this study, the reliability of the translated version was found to be high (Cronbach’s alpha: .86).

  To measure IQ and the verbal intelligence of the subjects, Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale (III) (1981) was used. The test is composed of two scales: verbal and performance. The verbal scale is composed of: information (29 items), digit span (14 items), vocabulary (40 items), arithmetic (14 items), comprehension (14 items) and similarities (13 items) modules. The Performance part consists of: picture comprehension, picture arrangement, block design, digit symbol, object assembly (Wechsler, 1981). Based on the classification made by Cattell (1963), the Verbal scale of WAIS is used to check the Crystallized intelligence (knowledge and skills related to education and experience) and the Performance scale is used to measure the Fluid intelligence (the ability to see relationships, as in analogies and letter and number series) of individuals (for more information on the test see appendix). 
  The single most frequently used test to establish a level of verbal intellectual functioning is the Vocabulary subtest of the WAIS-III (Wechsler, 1981). The WAIS Vocabulary subsection consists of 40 words. An examinee is presented with 1 word at a time and asked to define each word `s meaning. The examinee’s responses receive 0, 1, or 2 points, depending on how well he or she defines the word, allowing a range of scores from 0 to 80. The Vocabulary subset is quick to administer, correlates highly (.91-.95) with the Verbal scale of the WAIS-III, and comes with extensive normative data (Wechsler, 1949, 1981). 

The reliability coefficients of (internal consistency) are .93 for the Performance IQ averaged across all age groups and .97 for the Verbal IQ, with an r of .97 for the full scale. Evidence supports the validity of this test as a measure of global intelligence.  It does seem to measure what it intends to measure. It is correlated highly with other IQ tests (e.g. The Stanford-Binet), it correlates highly with empirical judgments of intelligence; it is significantly correlated with a number of criteria of academic and life success, including college grades, measures of work performance and occupational level. There are also significant correlations with measures of institutional progress among the mentally retarded (Wechsler, 1991). In this study, the author has used the translated version of the WAIS-III which has been prepared by Azmoon Padid institute (1993) in Tehran, Iran. The total reliability of the test in this study (Alpha: .82) was found to be high.

2.3. Data analysis
EQ questionnaires first were scored based on the guidelines provided by Bar-On (1998), then the total EQ scores, and the scores of EQ’s five major subscales were computed.  No data transformation was necessary. 
  To determine the role of EQ in second language learning, students’ scores at university, in GPA, were obtained from the Registrar’s offices of all universities. Pearson product-moment correlation was applied to the data.
  In order to compare levels of emotional competency in successful and less successful second-year students, academic records from the registrar’s offices of all universities were used to identify two groups of students: academically successful students (defined as those with a grade-point-average for the academic year above 84%) and academically unsuccessful students (defined as those with a grade-point-average for the academic year below 60%). These are not arbitrary criteria. For the students who participated in this study these values have important institutional implications: students in the successful group are considered to be top students and can take more courses for the next term to finish their studies sooner; students in the unsuccessful group are “rusticated” and will be asked to withdraw from the university if their GPA will be less than 59% for two more subsequent terms. With regard to the GPA, there were 77 students in the successful group (20 men and 57 women) and 67 students in the unsuccessful group (8 men and 59 women). These groups were not significantly different with respect to age. The same procedure for analysis was followed with the IQ data.
    t-tests, discriminant function analyses, and several diagnostic proficiency statistics (sensitivity and specificity) were calculated to further analyze the data. Discriminant function analysis is used to classify subjects into two or more distinct groups, such as dropouts versus persisters, successful versus unsuccessful, and so on. The criterion in discriminant analysis is a person’s group membership. Sensitivity refers to a test `s ability to identify correctly individuals with problems. This is also called the true positive rate, identifying the percentage of unsuccessful learners. Specificity refers to a test’s ability to identify correctly individuals with no problems. This is also called the true negative rate, identifying the percentage of successful learners.

3. Results
3.1. Emotional intelligence
Table 1 presents correlations among EQ-i Bar-On variables (intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, general mood, and total EQ), and second-year university grade point average (GPA). As the results of the correlation analysis demonstrates, low but significant correlations exist between EQ and its competencies and GPA at the p<.05 level of significance, which ranged from .12 to .22, demonstrating that EQ contributes to academic achievement of second language learners at university. 

Table.1: Correlations among EQ-i variables and GPA
---------------------------------------------------------
Variable Intrapersonal Interpersonal Stress management Adaptability General Mood Total EQ    
---------------------------------------------------------
GPA       .18*        .17*         .22*          .12*        .15*       .21

Since the correlation between GPA and EQ competencies was low, though significant, the researchers, to further examine the relationship between EQ and GPA conducted multiple t-tests. Table 2 presents the results of t-tests for the EQ measures for GPA. The results of t-tests demonstrated that students in the successful group had higher scores on intrapersonal (t=2.20, p<.05), stress management (t=2.02, p<.05), general mood (t=2.01, p<.05), and total EQ (t=2.34, p<.05) in GPA.  

Table 2: The results of t-tests on EQ variables in different skills for both groups (see pdf)

        Intrapersonal                    77/67                 2.20           .02
        Interpersonal                    77/67                 1.32           .18
GPA    Stress management       77/67                 2.02           .04
        Adaptability                      77/67                  .73           .46     
        General mood                   77/67                 2.01           .04  
        Total EQ              77/67                 2.34           .02

  To further explore the predictive validity of the EQ for all of the skills , stepwise discriminant function analyses were performed using emotional intelligence scores as predictors of membership in two groups (successful vs. unsuccessful). The results demonstrated that intrapersonal ability in GPA (r=.95, p<05) was the best predictor to differentiate the successful from unsuccessful students. 
  Discriminant function scores were subsequently used to classify the students into successful and unsuccessful groups. Classification rates are presented in Table 3. Following the definitions and procedures outlined by Kessel and Zimmerman (1993), several diagnostic proficiency statistics were calculated from these classification results: for GPA, sensitivity was 56%, specificity 57% and overall correct classification rate was 56%.

Table 3: Classification results from discriminant function analyses with EQ variables (see PDF)

3.2. Psychometric and verbal intelligences
To find out whether there is any relationship between intelligence and second language learning, Pearson product-moment correlation was applied to the data.
  The data bearing on the correlation of the total IQ with  GPA (Table 4) showed that there were significant, though not much high correlations, at the p<.05 level of significance between the total IQ and GPA (r=.29). The only subtests which were correlated significantly, albeit low with GPA were Information (r=.18, p<05) and Vocabulary (r=.3. p<.05).

Table 4: Correlations among IQ variables and GPA (see PDF)

To further examine the relationship between IQ and GPA, multiple t-tests were conducted. Table 5 presents the results of t-tests for the IQ measures for GPA.
  The results of t-tests demonstrated that students in the successful group had higher scores on Vocabulary subtest (t=2.61, p<.05), and total IQ (t=2.76, p<.05) in GPA.

Table 5: The results of t-tests on IQ variables in GPA

Skills	Scales	n Successful/Unsuccessful	t-value	p-level
GPA	Information Comprehension Arithmetic Similarities Digit span Vocabulary Total IQ	68/46 68/46 68/46 68/46 68/46 68/46 68/46	1.80 .49 1.61 1.52 1.46 2.61 2.76	.07 .62 .11 .13 .14 .01 .008

To further explore the predictive validity of the IQ for GPA, stepwise discriminant function analyses were performed using intelligence scores as predictors of membership in two groups (successful vs. unsuccessful). The results demonstrated that the Vocabulary subtest (verbal intelligence) in GPA (r=.88, p<05) was the best predictor to differentiate the successful from unsuccessful students.

Discriminant function scores were subsequently used to classify the students into successful and unsuccessful groups. Classification rates are presented in table 6. Following the definitions and procedures outlined by Kessel and Zimmerman (1993), several diagnostic proficiency statistics were calculated from these classification results: for GPA, sensitivity was 60%, specificity 64% and overall correct classification rate was 62%. 

Table 6: Classification results from discriminant function analyses with IQ variables (see PDF)

4. Discussion
Determining the role of emotional intelligence in academic achievement produced divergent results depending on how the variables were operationalized. When the relationship between GPA and EQ was examined (n=508), total EQ and its subscales were found to be poor predictors of academic achievement.
  Quite a different level of prediction was produced when EQ variables were compared in groups who had achieved a second-year university GPA of 85% or more versus relatively unsuccessful students who received a second-year university GPA of 59% or less. Important factors for success in academic achievement were found to be: intrapersonal, stress management, and general mood. In fact, results of the t-tests indicate that the emotional competencies which are effective in academic achievement include: The intrapersonal abilities which involve emotional self awareness (the ability to recognize and to understand one’s feelings); assertiveness (the ability to express feelings, beliefs and thoughts, and to defend one’s rights in a non-destructive manner; self-regard (the ability to respect and accept oneself), self-actualization (the ability to realize one’s potential capacities), and independence (the ability to be self-directed and self-controlled in one’s thinking and actions and to be free of emotional dependency), stress management abilities which involve stress tolerance (the ability to cope with and manage stressful situations) and impulse control (the ability to resist or delay an impulse, drive or temptation to act), and general mood abilities which involve happiness (being satisfied with life, enjoying being with others) and optimism (maintaining a positive attitude even in face of adversity). (Bar-On, 1997). In addition, the findings on GPA were consistent, to some extent, with those of Parker et al. (2004), in which they found relationship between academic achievement and intrapersonal, stress management, and adaptability subscales.
  GPA and EQ were strongly associated with intrapersonal abilities assessed at the end of the academic year. Collectively, these variables were found to be strong predictors in identifying both academically successful (nearly 60% of successful students were identified) and unsuccessful (nearly 60% of unsuccessful students were correctly identified) second-year students. Based on the scores of this emotional subscale of emotional intelligence- intrapersonal abilities - one can easily predict the performance of students’ GPA at university. In fact, this subscale enjoys acceptable predictive utility, differentiating the successful from unsuccessful language learners at university.
  Unlike the findings of emotional intelligence which came up with divergent results depending on how the variables were operationalized, examining the role of IQ in second language  learning produced convergent results, demonstrating that the only subscale of IQ which is strongly correlated with academic achievement is the Vocabulary section (verbal intelligence). The results of correlation, t-tests, and discriminant function analyses all showed that the verbal intelligence is very important in academic achievement.

5. Conclusion
The findings of this study corroborated the statement of Elliot Aaronson, a distinguished social psychologist, who claimed that ‘‘Studies have demonstrated that EQ and academic intelligence are separate qualities, and that emotional intelligence is a better predictor of success in education’’ (2000, p. 102 as cited in Parker et al., 2004, p. 169). Although Aaronson has failed to provide evidence for the foregoing claim by comparing the predictive validity of IQ and EI in predicting academic performance via appropriate statistical tests for comparing differences among validity coefficients or regression parameters, our study attempts to furnish hard statistical data to support the hypothesis that IQ in general has little predictive utility for academic success, but EQ was found to be correlated with academic success. These findings are also compatible with the findings of Goleman (1995) who claimed that EQ more than IQ accounts for success in life and education. 
   According to this study, EQ competencies which play crucial roles in academic achievement of the students include: Intrapersonal, Stress management, and General mood. The results, to some extent, are compatible with the findings of Parker et al. (2004), in which they found a relationship between academic achievement and intrapersonal, stress management, and adaptability subscales. To obtain better scores at university, students should foster a good relationship with professors and other students and to cope with stressful situations occurring in the classroom. Therefore, it seems to be natural that emotional intelligence can play a pivotal role in academic achievement at university.
  As it was found IQ in general and verbal intelligence in particular can predict success at university at the end of the second year. It is not surprising to find that one of the most important abilities which can help students gain better results and be successful in their courses at university is verbal intelligence, because verbal intelligence deals with the knowledge of words, and the knowledge of words especially in the mother tongue is the cornerstone of all subjects and courses at university. Therefore, acquiring high levels of emotional and verbal intelligences can lead to success at university.

6. Implications
The findings of this study suggest several implications for the English language teaching profession. If we believe that emotional intelligence can be increased, trained and schooled (Elias et al., 1997), and if we assume that it may be possible to educate those who are low in emotional competencies to improve their abilities to better recognize their feelings, express them, and regulate them (Mayer & Geher, 1996), language policy makers are expected to include programs to raise emotional competencies of their learners. Curricula should seek to educate learners about the value of emotional competencies. They also seek to foster the development of specific skills in these areas (e.g., recognition of emotions in self and others, empathy, conflict resolution).
   Besides, English teachers are expected to be familiar with the concept, and to try to enhance the emotional intelligence of their own learners. To this end, they themselves first should discover their own emotional intelligence abilities through answering EQ tests and questionnaires, and if it is low, they can strive to raise their own emotional competencies. It seems to be natural that a teacher with a low level of EQ may not satisfy the students’ emotional needs, and so he will be of little help to them, failing to increase their emotional intelligence. 
   Materials developers are also required to include techniques which pay more attention to emotional factors, leading the learners to more self-and-other-discovery. Some helpful techniques which can be used to increase emotional intelligence in the classroom include: discussion, listening to light music, watching emotional clips, self-disclosure, designing questionnaires and reading literature and psychological texts. For example, employing questionnaires or holding discussion groups on emotional competencies can highly contribute to emotional literacy. Well-organized questionnaires can make the learners be more aware of their own emotional competencies. Discussion groups in which the learners are asked to express their feelings freely and share them with others in an explicit way can make the learners know themselves deeply, foster good relations with others, and reduce stress and anxiety.

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Appendix>

Wechsler (III)
The Verbal part of the WAIS-III (1981) is carried out through interview. The average time to do the interview is 30-50 minutes. In the Information section of the test, a testee is presented with one question at a time and asked to respond it. The testees` responses receive 1 point for correct responses and 0 for incorrect responses, allowing a range of scores from 0 to 29. In the Digit span section of the test, testees listen to sets of numbers, and are asked to repeat them on the spot. The testees’ responses receive 1 point for correct responses and 0 for incorrect responses and the range scores are from 0 to 17. In the Arithmetic subtest of the test, testees are provided with some questions one at a time, and required to respond them in the allotted time. The testees’ responses receive 1 point for correct responses and 0 for incorrect responses allowing a range of scores from 0 to 18. In the Comprehension part of the test, testees are provided with some questions one at a time and asked to answer them. The examinees’ responses receive 0, 1, or 2 points, depending on how well he or she may answer the questions, allowing a range of scores from 28. In the Similarities section of the test, examinees are asked to find the similarities between some words. The examinees’ responses receive 0, 1, or 2 points, depending on how exact the responses are, allowing a range of scores from 0 to 26.