Introduction
When
the language teaching literature is read at a glance, in last
decades, it can be observed that the field has focused its attention
on some studies in Humanistic/Analytic Psychology, and has been
searching for the ways of effective language teaching models in
view of universals of human cognition and psyche. Also many of
the innovative language teaching methods and approaches have been
benefiting from humanistic psychology. These teaching methods
express the interest in the total person and not simply the intellect
and offer to provide a blend of the cognitive and affective way
of teaching in EFL/ESL classes.
Many
of the studies on language learning underline the importance of
raising self-esteem and awareness in our classes, which means
that we can not talk about a successful language class in which
the students feel insecure and discouraged. Haycraft notes (1999)
that teaching English successfully is not just a question of method.
I have observed many classes where teacher's techniques were superb,
but where the students were reluctant to learn because the teacher
was not interested in them as people, and the lesson developed
like the workings of a machine, functioning in isolation.(P.6)As
Haycraft emphasizes, the best lesson may fail due to the fact
that the personal diversity and needs are underestimated. Moreover,
when we think of a class in which the audience is willing to participate
in, speak and produce yet they can not break their walls, Haycraft's
picture can be seen so optimistic.
There
are many similarities and differences between adult and younger
learners. Perhaps the greatest difference is that the former come
to class with a long history of learning experience.(Harmer 1999)
Learning experiences of adults maybe both full of glories and
failures which possibly leads them to anticipate how teaching
and learning should be carried out. It can be said that most adult
learners have a definition of learning. Also we should recall
adults are more nervous of learning than younger learners are.
When we reorganize the picture of adult classes that we have reviewed
up to now, a need for CTT can be emphasized : Let's imagine a
class where most of the students have an idea of learning, and
bring a great record of learning experience which is full of success
and failure and where they are nervous of making mistakes just
in front of the beautiful ladies and handsome gentlemen. One of
the most appropriate solution is that we must lead them to learn
about learning itself so that they can monitor their learning
process consciously and of course, can make some changes in their
definition of learning. This awareness merely itself is a cognitive
therapy since if one can observe her/his own learning process,
s/he also consciously or unconsciously knows that s/he can learn
a language successfully. An awareness about learning process will
both assist learners to build up their learning strategies effectively
and redefine their values and beliefs on language learning.
ADULT EDUCATION
"If the education is life, then the life is also education."
Linderman
In the 1950s,the attention on adult education had researchers
to identify the differences between young and adult learners.
In the following decade, educators reached a consensus on the
concept "Andragogy" (Knowles) referring to adult education.
The studies on adult education can be classified in two main streams
: the scientific stream and the other the artistic or intuitive/reflective
stream ( Knowles 1998:36). In his book, Throndike notes that the
scientific stream seeks to discover new knowledge through rigorous
(and often not experimental) investigation. On the other hand,
the artistic stream seeks to discover new knowledge through intuition
and the analysis of the experience. Very similarly to this study,
another educational pioneer, Carl Rogers (1969) distinguished
two types of learning : Cognitive (Meaningless) and Experiential
( Significant). Cognitive learning refers to academic knowledge
while the experiential equates to personal change and growth.
Also Rogers states that all human beings have a natural ability
to learn. The nature of experiential learning is :
*
Setting a positive climate for learning
* Clarifying the purposes of the learners
* Balancing intellectual and emotional components of leaning
* Sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating
* Organizing and making available learning results
As
the experiential learning suggest a personal change and development
process, it is clearly a mere fact that learners should feel safe
in the classroom. Also clarifying the purposes of the learners
and organizing and making available learning results can be fulfilled
effectively if this process is linked to learn about the learning.
We will discuss this issue in detail in CTT class techniques.
In
order to take a closer look at adult education, the brief summary
of Linderman should be underlined, as follows :
1.
adults are motivated to learn as they experience the needs and
interests that learning will be safe.
2. Adults' orientation to learning is Life-Centered .
3. Experience is the richest source for adults' learning.
4. Adults have a deep need to be self-directing.
5. Individual differences among people increase with age.
One
important issue is that most of the studies on pedagogy and andragogy
dichotomize adult versus youth education. However, Linderman draws
a line between adult versus conventional education.
In a recent theory, Cross (1981) developed the Characteristics
of Adults as Learners
( CAL model). The CAL model integrates the previous studies on
adult learning such as andragogy, experiential learning and lifespan
psychology. The CAL model consists of two variables, personal
and situational. The former include aging, life phrases, many
sort of stages such as marriage, job changes and retirement. Situational
characteristics include part-time versus full-time learning, and
voluntary versus compulsory learning. The CAL model of adult learning
aims to provide guidelines for adult instruction programs. The
principles are as follows :
*
Adult learning programs should adapt to the aging limitations
of the participants.
* Adults should be challenged to move to increasingly advanced
stages of personal development.
* Adults should have as much choice as possible in the availability
and organization of learning programs.
Among
all these theories, one can easily anticipate that one of the
major role of an adult education policy and program is to build
up an experience process that they can reflect upon their own
development, and go through this program by cooperating with other
adult learners.
ADULT
LEARNERS
" The experience is the adult
learners' living textbook."
Linderman
There
are many factors that must be taken into account to establish
a productive learning and teaching situation in adult classes.
However, we should first recall who an adult learner is. According
to Knowles(1976),a prime characteristics of adultness is the need
and capacity to self-directing (P.182). Also adult learners have
some characteristics which can sometimes make learning and teaching
problematic. In some cases, unfamiliar teaching patterns and innovative
activities may make them feel uncomfortable since their previous
learning experiences get them to be critical of these teaching
methods. Moreover, many other adult learners worry that their
intellectual powers may be diminishing with age-they are concerned
about keeping their creative powers alive, maintaining a "sense
of generativity"(Williams and Burden 1997:32). Needless to
say, this generativity is directly related to how much learning
has been going on in adult life before they come to a new learning
experience.(Rogers 1996:54)
As
we have mentioned the problem of self-esteem and inhibition in
adult learners, it will be beneficial to recall a study to see
the other side of the coin: A survey by Child-Line shows that
a sample of 1000 secondary school pupils were worried more about
doing well at school than anything else in their lives. Children
as young as twelve were worried about university entrance(Fletcher
2000:63) The report concludes:
Examinations
involve a judgement delivered publicly, by others, of someone's
performance. The fear of being judged is anathema to the sensitive
or those with a fragile self-esteem. Parents and tutors should
watch out for symptoms which suggest possible psychiatric storms
ahead and make every effort to ease the ordeal for the child or
undergraduate.
Whereas the main concern of this article is not the young learners,
it should be considered that adultness is not a promotion or a
medal of maturity. Naturally, adult learners also go through such
educational jungles, processes, given above and the ones who are
more sensitive or having a fragile self-esteem fulfill their beliefs
and values on learning through those experiences. This survey
is a notable evidence to convince us of importance of strengthening
the self-esteem and encouraging the personal relations in our
classes, whether our students are very young learners or socially
accepted mature adults.
HOW
ADULTS LEARN
"Self-esteem is the jet fuel
of motivation"
Murray White
A
study by psychologist David Kolb on the question "How adults
learn? " shows that when the adults undertake to learn something
through their own initiative, they start with a concrete experience.
Then they make observations about the experience, reflect on it
and diagnose what new knowledge or skill they need to acquire
in order to perform more effectively. Then, with the help of material
and human resources, they formulate abstract concepts and generalizations
which they deduce what to do next. Finally, they test their concepts
and generalizations in new situations, which refers to the new
experiences.
Figure 1 shows the cyclical process of experiential learning theory
:
KOLB'S
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
